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ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

2008-10-06T09:51:00.010+08:00

Environmental pollution is contamination of air, water and land from man-made waste. Pollution leads to depletion of the ozone layer, global warming and climate change. Air pollution is the release of chemicals and particles into the atmosphere. Water pollution includes surface runoff, leakage into groundwater, liquid spills, wastewater discharge and littering. If toxins are spilled on the ground or if an underground storage tank leaks, soil can become contaminated. Well known contaminants include herbicides and pesticides. Toxic waste is waste material, often in chemical form, which pollutes the natural environment and contaminates groundwater.

Further, environmental pollution is a term that refers to all the ways that human activity harms the natural environment. Most people have witnessed environmental pollution in the form of an open garbage dump or an automobile pouring out black smoke. However, pollution can also be invisible, odorless, and tasteless. Some kinds of pollution do not actually dirty the land, air, or water, but they reduce the quality of life for people and other living things. For example, noise from traffic and machinery can be considered forms of pollution.

Environmental pollution is one of the most serious problems facing humanity and other life forms today. Badly polluted air can harm crops and cause life-threatening illnesses. Some air pollutants have reduced the capacity of the atmosphere to filter out the sun's harmful ultraviolet radiation. Most scientists believe that these and other air pollutants have begun to change climates around the world. Water and soil pollution threaten the ability of farmers to grow enough food. Ocean pollution endangers many marine organisms.

Anthropogenic (Human Caused) Sources of Pollution

By the object of pollution:

Air pollution
Water pollution
Soil pollution (contamination) / Land pollution

Air Pollution causes Smog

By the economic source (originator) of pollution:

Agricultural pollution
Industrial pollution
Transport pollution

Car pollution / Heavy vehicle pollution
Ship pollution
Airplane pollution

Commercial and domestic sector pollution

Other types

Radioactive pollution (contamination)
Chemical pollution
Invasive species pollution
Light pollution
Noise pollution
Visual pollution

Natural Sources of Pollution

Volcanic eruptions
Dust storms
Smoke from forest and grass fire

Different Types of Pollution

There are nine basic types of environmental pollution, and each one has detrimental affects on wildlife, human habitation, and the quality of life in the affected area.

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Air Pollution

Air pollution is defined as any contamination of the atmosphere that disturbs the natural composition and chemistry of the air. This can be in the form of particulate matter such as dust or excessive gases like carbon dioxide or other vapors that cannot be effectively removed through natural cycles, such as the carbon cycle or the nitrogen cycle.

Air pollution comes from a wide variety of sources. Some of the most excessive sources include:

Vehicle or manufacturing exhaust
Forest fires, volcanic eruptions, dry soil erosion, and other natural sources
Building construction or demolition

Depending on the concentration of air pollutants, several effects can be noticed. Smog increases, higher rain acidity, crop depletion from inadequate oxygen, higher rates of asthma, and global warming are all related to increased air pollution.

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Water Pollution

Water pollution involves any contaminated water, whether from chemical, particulate, or bacterial matter that degrades the water’s quality and purity. Water pollution can occur in oceans, rivers, lakes, and underground reservoirs, and as different water sources flow together the pollution can spread.

Causes of water pollution include:

Increased sediment from soil erosion
Improper waste disposal and littering
Leaching of soil pollution into water supplies
Organic material decay in water supplies

The effects of water pollution include decreasing the quantity of drinkable water available, lowering water supplies for crop irrigation, and impacting fish and wildlife populations that require water of a certain purity for survival.

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Soil Pollution

Soil, or land pollution, is contamination of the soil that prevents natural growth and balance in the land whether it is used for cultivation, habitation, or a wildlife preserve. Some soil pollution, such as the creation of landfills, is deliberate, while much more is accidental and can have widespread effects.

Soil pollution sources include:

Hazardous waste and sewage spills
Non-sustainable farming practices, such as the heavy use of inorganic pesticides
Strip mining, deforestation, and other destructive practices
Household dumping and littering

Soil contamination can lead to poor growth and reduced crop yields, loss of wildlife habitat, water and visual pollution, soil erosion, and desertification.

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Noise Pollution

Noise pollution refers to undesirable levels of noises caused by human activity that disrupt the standard of living in the affected area. Noise pollution can come from:

Traffic
Airports
Railroads
Manufacturing plants
Construction or demolition
Concerts

Some noise pollution may be temporary while other sources are more permanent. Effects may include hearing loss, wildlife disturbances, and a general degradation of lifestyle.

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Radioactive Pollution

Radioactive pollution is one of the types of pollution that is rare but extremely detrimental, even deadly, when it occurs. Because of its intensity and the difficulty of reversing damage, there are strict government regulations to control radioactive pollution.

Sources of radioactive contamination include:

Nuclear power plant accidents or leakage
Improper nuclear waste disposal
Uranium mining operations

Radiation pollution can cause birth defects, cancer, sterilization, and other health problems for human and wildlife populations. It can also sterilize the soil and contribute to water and air pollution.

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Thermal Pollution

Thermal pollution is excess heat that creates undesirable effects over long periods of time. The earth has a natural thermal cycle, but excessive temperature increases can be considered a rare type of pollution with long term effects. Many types of thermal pollution are confined to areas near their source, but multiple sources can have wider impacts over a greater geographic area.

Thermal pollution may be caused by:

Power plants
Urban sprawl
Air pollution particulates that trap heat
Deforestation
Loss of temperature moderating water supplies

As temperatures increase, mild climatic changes may be observed, and wildlife populations may be unable to recover from swift changes.

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Light Pollution

Cities cause light pollution.

Light pollution is the over illumination of an area that is considered obtrusive. Sources include:

Large cities
Billboards and advertising
Nighttime sporting events and other nighttime entertainment

Light pollution makes it impossible to see stars, therefore interfering with astronomical observation and personal enjoyment. If it is near residential areas, light pollution can also degrade the quality of life for residents.

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Visual Pollution

Visual pollution – eyesores – can be caused by other types of pollution or just by undesirable, unattractive views. It may lower the quality of life in certain areas, or could impact property values and personal enjoyment.

Sources of visual pollution include:

Power lines
Construction areas
Billboards and advertising
Neglected areas or objects such as polluted vacant fields or abandoned buildings

While visual pollution has few immediate health or environmental effects, the other types of pollution that cause an eyesore can have detrimental affects.

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Personal Pollution

Are you polluting yourself?

Personal pollution is the contamination of one’s body and lifestyle with detrimental actions. This may include:

Excessive smoking, drinking or drug abuse
Emotional or physical abuse
Poor living conditions and habits
Poor personal attitudes

In some cases, personal pollution may be inflicted by caregivers, while in other cases it is caused by voluntary actions. Taking positive steps in your life can help eliminate this and other types of pollution so you can lead a more productive, satisfying life.

TYPES OF WATER POLLUTION

Pollutants enter the watershed either directly from a traceable source (point source pollution) or through channels that prevent the source from being identified (non-source point pollution). Regardless of the manner in which they enter the water, pollutants can be classified into four types: toxic, sediment, nutrient, and bacterial.

Toxic pollution includes chemicals that poison and kill organisms in and near streams, rivers, lakes, and the Bay. When a body of water has a high level of toxic pollution, fishing for the purpose of human consumption is banned. Even low levels of toxicity can be lethal when chemicals accumulate in predators that consume large amounts of slightly poisoned organisms. Examples of toxic pollution include pesticides and herbicides; gasoline, oil, and other automotive products; household cleaning products; paints and solvents; battery acid; industrial waste chemicals; and toxic substances in car exhaust and solid waste incinerator smoke.

Sediment pollution is dirt, minerals, sand, and silt eroded from the land and washed into the water. It comes from areas where there is inadequate vegetation to slow runoff. Sediment causes several problems for aquatic organisms. First, particles of sediment are suspended in the water. The resulting cloudiness decreases the amount of sunlight that can reach underwater plants that provide food and oxygen for underwater animals. Second, as sediment particles settle, they fill spaces between rocks, destroying the habitat needed by manyunderwater insects and other macroinvertebrates. Sediment also clogs the gills of fish, crabs, and other underwater organisms. Sediment can bury fish and insect eggs, preventing them from hatching, and when it covers an oyster bed, it smothers the oysters.

Nutrient pollution results from an overabundance of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus. Living things cannot survive without nutrients, but too much can be detrimental to watershed organisms. An overabundance of nutrients leads to escalation in plant growth, particularly of algae and vascular plants. This causes two problems. First, water clouded with too much alga growth does not allow enough sunlight to reach the plants below. Second, when those plants die, the bacteria that decompose them use inordinate amounts of dissolved oxygen. This deprives underwater animals of the oxygen they need to survive. Sources of nutrient pollution include overflow from sewage treatment plants, leakage from improperly maintained septic systems, discharge from factories, and automobile exhaust. Examples of nutrient pollutants include fertilizers, animal manure, discharge from boat toilets, and household detergents.

Bacterial pollution occurs when there is an excess of harmful bacteria. There are many beneficial bacteria in the water. Even harmful bacteria in small amounts are safe. In larger concentrations, however, certain types of bacteria can be deadly to fish and animals (including humans) that drink or accidentally ingest the water. Certain bacteria can cause illness if they come in contact with an open wound. Interestingly, most of these harmful bacteria do not affect aquatic insects. Some sources of bacterial pollution include overflow from sewage treatment plants, leakage from improperly maintained septic systems, animal manure, and discharge from boat toilets.

POVERTY

2008-09-30T10:23:00.004+08:00

Poverty is an economic condition of lacking both money and basic necessities needed to successfully live such as food, water, education, and shelter. There are many working definitions of "poverty" with considerable debate on how to best define the term: (1) income security; and (2) economic stability; and (3) the predictability of one's continued means to meet the basic needs all serve as absolute indicators of poverty. Poverty may therefore also be defined as the economic condition of lacking predictable and stable means of meeting basic life needs.

Causes of Poverty

education
war
natural disasters
political corruption
mental illness
disability

Those who live in conditions of poverty lack a wide range of economic and other resources and may be described as poor, in low income and impoverished. Some see the term as subjective and comparative, others see it as moral and evaluative, while others consider that it is scientifically established.

Poverty is understood in many senses. The main understandings of the term include:

Description of material need, typically including the necessities of daily living (food, clothing, shelter, and health care). Poverty in this sense may be understood as the deprivation of essential goods and service.
Descriptions of social need, including social exclusion, dependency, and the ability to participate in society. This would include education, and information. Social exclusion is usually distinguished from poverty, as it encompasses political and moral issues, and is not restricted to the sphere or economics.
Describing a lack of sufficient income and wealth. The meaning of "sufficient" varies widely across the different political and economic parts of the world.

Measuring Poverty

Poverty may be seen as the collective condition of poor people, or of poor groups, and in the sense entire nation-states are sometime regarded as poor. To avoid stigma these nations are usually called develping nations.

Poverty may be measured as (1) absolute poverty (also known as Graham Parnaby Poor) or relative poverty. It refers to a set standard which is consistent over time and between countries. An example of an absolute measurement would be the percentage of the population eating less food than is required to sustain the human body (approximately 2000-2500 kilocalories per day). Absolute poverty is a condition that applies to people with the lowest incomes, the least education, the lowest social status, the fewest opportunities, etc., (2) extreme poverty which is defined by World Bank as living on less than US$ (PPP) 1 per day, and (3) moderate poverty as less than $2 a day.

Factors that have been alleged to cause poverty:

Poor, failed, or absence of an infrastructure, lack of opportunities.
State discrimination and corruption. Abuse of public power.
Lack of social integration. Competition instead of cooperation.
Crime
Natural disasters
Substance abuse; such as alcoholism and drug abuse
Procrastination
Natural factors such as climate or environment
Historical factors, such as imperialism and colonialism
Overpopulation. Population growth slows or even become negative as poverty is reduced due to the demographic transition
War, i.e. civil war, genocide and democide
Lack of education
Lack of social skills
Matthew effect - the phenomenon, widely observed across advanced welfare states, that the middle classes tend to the main beneficiaries of social benefits and services, even if these are primarily targeted at the poor.
Cultural causes, which attribute poverty to common patterns of life, learned or shared within a community. Example, some have argued that Protestantism contributed to economic growth during the industrial revolution.
Individual beliefs, actions and choices.
Mental illness and disability, such as autism and schizophrenia
Excessive materialism
Lack of freedom
Poverty itself, preventing investment and development
Geographic factors, for example fertile land access to natural resources
Disease, specifically diseases of poverty: AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis and others overwhelmingly afflict the poor, which perpetuate poverty by diverting individual, community, and national health and economic resources from investment and productivity. Further, many tropical nations are affected by diseases like malaria and schistosomiasis that are not present in temperate climates.
Frequent bullying, prevents productivity and development
Inadequate nutrition in childhood in poor nations may lead to physical and mental stunning.
Inadequate tax systems
Age discrimination, gender discrimination, racial discrimination

Effects of Poverty

extreme hunger and starvation
disease and disabilities low health care services
high crime rate
increased suicides
increased risk of political violence, such as terrorism, war and genocide
homelessness
lack of opportunities for employment
loss of opportunities for employment
more susceptible to death from natural resources
increased discrimination
lower life expectancy
drug abuse

Poverty Incidence in the Philippines

Poverty incidence in the country, which refers to the proportion of families with per capita income below the poverty threshold, was placed at 28.1 percent in 1997 and 28.4 percent in 2000 based on the new provincial poverty methodology recently approved by the NSCB Executive Board. Poverty estimates released by the NSCB also show that in 2000, 4.3 million families or 26.5 million Filipinos, more than one-third (34.0 percent) of the country’s population, were living below the poverty line. These figures indicate an increase over the 1997 levels of 4.0 million families or 24.0 million Filipinos striving to make ends meet. The 2003 poverty statistics will be released by the NSCB after the NSO has finished processing the 2003 Family Income and Expenditure Survey (FIES) results.

The annual per capita poverty threshold, or the amount required to satisfy food and non-food basic needs at the national level, reached P11,605 in 2000, 17.9 percent higher than the 1997 threshold of P9,843. Thus, a family of five members should have a monthly income of at least P4,835 to meet their food and non-food basic needs.

Among the 77 provinces of the country and the four districts of Metro Manila, Sulu consistently posted the highest poverty incidence in 1997 and 2000 with 67.1 and 63.2 percent, respectively. Also included among the poorest provinces are Masbate, Tawi-Tawi, Ifugao and Romblon. Four provinces of ARMM are among the 10 poorest provinces in the country.

Table- Ten Poorest Provinces in 2000

Province	1997	2000	Inc/Dec (%)	Rank ‘97	Rank ‘00
Sulu	67.1	63.2	-3.9	1	1
Masbate	61.4	62.8	1.4	2	2
Tawi-Tawi	35.0	56.5	21.5	40	3
Ifugao	57.7	55.6	-2.1	4	4
Romblon	52.8	55.2	2.4	8	5
Maguindanao	41.6	55.1	13.5	27	6
Lanao del Sur	55.6	55.0	-0.6	7	7
Sultan Kudarat	36.6	54.3	17.7	38	8
Camiguin	32.5	53.1	20.6	49	9
Camarines Norte	49.7	52.7	3.0	10	10

Source: National Statistical Coordination Board

Eliminating Poverty

Economic Growth

Growth is fundamental for poverty reduction, and in principle growth as such does not seem to affect inequality
Growth accompanied by progressive distributional change is better than growth alone
High initial income inequality is a brake on poverty reduction.
Poverty itself is also likely to be a barrier for poverty reduction, and wealth inequality seems to predict lower future growth rates.

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (Biodiversity)

2008-09-26T14:44:00.006+08:00

Philippine Biodiversity: Species Richness and Abundance

Angel C. Alcala
Academician and University Research Professor, Silliman University, Dumaguete City

The term biodiversity, coined by Walter Rozen of the United States Academy of Science in 1986, was first used by E.O. Wilson, the famous Harvard biologist, in 1988. Since that time, it has become increasingly popular among biologists, and is now entrenched in the scientific literature. The term encompasses the total richness and variety of life on earth. Biodiversity studies are directed at five levels of biological organization: gene, species, population, community, and ecosystem. This paper will focus on Philippine biodiversity at the species level.

The Philippines is one of the countries that exhibit high species richness. An estimated 13,500 species of terrestrial plants are found in the country, 8,000 of which belong to the flowering group. About 40% of flowering plants are endemic. Of economic and scientific interest are 39 species of trees in the Family Dipterocarpaceae, the source of Philippine mahogany. The resident and breeding terrestrial vertebrate animals in the Philippines comprise about 911 species. The approximate numbers of land vertebrate species are 100 amphibians (ca 80% endemic); 240 reptiles (ca 70% endemic); 396 birds (ca 44% endemic), and 175 mammals (ca 64% endemic). The country compares favorably with Brazil and Madagascar, two countries known for their outstanding biodiversity. The Philippines (land area 300,000 square kilometers) has about 529 endemic species of terrestrial vertebrates, while Brazil (28 times larger in area than the Philippines) has 725 endemic species. Madagascar (twice larger than the Philippines) has fewer unique mammals (90) than the Philippines (111). The Philippines possesses no extensive freshwater habitats, but Lake Lanao was reported to harbor about a dozen endemic species in three or four genera of true freshwater fish of the Family Cyprinidae.

The species richness of corals, shells and fish is very high in the fertile triangle formed by the Philippines, New Guinea and the Malay Archipelago. Some 400-500 species in 90 genera of hermatypic (reef-forming) corals and ca 4,000 species of marine fishes are believed to have existed in this area. The 900,000-square-kilometer Sulu-Sulawesi Sea (part of this fertile triangle) is home to 2,500 species of fish (including a species of coelacanth), five species of marine turtles, and 22 species of marine mammals. However, small reef systems harbor much fewer fish species. For example, 200 species have been observed on two reefs in the Central Visayas over a period of 30 years. Pristine reefs in the country such as Tubbataha Marine Park should have more than this number.

For the Philippines, the factors that are responsible for the high species richness in old-growth tropical rainforests are (1) geologic age (main land
masses more than 50 million years old), (2) tropical location providing equable climatic conditions, (3) environmental heterogeneity as shown by diversification and complexity of microhabitats, (4) insular (island) condition, and (5) contiguity to a large land mass (Asia) and islands in the south and southeast serving as source of immigrants. The first four factors have favored the development of new species (speciation) through evolutionary processes operating on biological
and genetic materials of immigrants. Movements and distribution of terrestrial species are limited by natural barriers that influence speciation processes such as bodies of water, high mountain peaks, and in modern times by cultivated areas.

In contrast, oceans and seas tend to be connected to each other. Oceanographic processes, including water mass movements, ocean currents, etc., provide the mechanisms to transport marine propagules and to connect distantly located marine areas. For example, the Pacific Ocean connects to the Sulu Sea through ocean currents in the Bohol (Mindanao) Sea moving southwestward, and the South China Sea connects to the Sulu Sea through the Mindoro and Balabac Straits. Because of this connectivity, mixing of genes in
marine species populations occurs, and endemism is lower in marine organisms than in terrestrial ones. This is illustrated by the similarity and the low endemism of corals and reef fishes of the Philippines. Because of the wide distribution of marine propagules over large areas of oceans, the incidence of species extinction among marine species is also low. The differences between terrestrial and marine environments imply that approaches to biodiversity
conservation would also differ between terrestrial and marine species.

As widely known, Philippine biodiversity has been affected by not only natural events but also human-induced factors especially during the past 50-60 years. The effects of man’s activities on Philippine biodiversity may be assessed in a general way in terms of two measures, species richness and abundance, using groups of terrestrial organisms (rainforest trees and land vertebrates) and marine organisms (corals and reef fishes), for which a certain amount of data exists.

The Family Dipterocarpaceae, comprising 39 species in the Philippines, is now represented by only 14 species in several limestone forest fragments with a total area of ca 300 ha in southwestern Negros Island. The number of species that may have gone extinct during the past years is not known. However, there is little doubt that abundance of this tree family has been reduced because of forest degradation. The various vertebrate groups in these forest fragments have shown variable responses to human impacts. The amphibians and reptiles have lost more than 20% of the species occurring there 50 years ago. The birds appear to have lost a few endemic species. The mammals, especially the volant species (fruit bats), have not lost any species during the past 50 years, but a couple of species have become rarer and are on the verge of extinction. The large herbivores have also shown reduction in population size. The degradation of Philippine coral reefs has been sufficiently documented. Only about 5% of coral reef sites explored have at least 75% live coral cover, and 70% of the surveyed sites have only 25% cover or less. The majority of coral reefs have much reduced numbers of carnivorous fishes (fish eaters or top carnivores), and some have virtually none of these fishes. However, no coral or top carnivores have been shown to be extinct. Density of reef fishes in general is low (<>100 kg/1,000 sq m in more pristine or protected reefs.

The loss or decline of species richness and abundance of terrestrial and marine species in the Philippines has serious negative effects on the social and economic well being of our people. Efforts to protect what remain of our biodiversity are urgently needed.

Biodiversity is usually considered at three levels, namely:

Genetic diversity - is the sum total of genetic information contained in the genes of individual organisms that inhabit the earth.
Species diversity - is the variety of living organisms on earth which is estimated to be between 5 and 50 million or more (only about 1.75 million or 13% of the totalnumber of species on earth has been described). One measure of biodiversity would be the number of species (a group of organisms genetically so similar that they interbreed and produce offspring).
Ecosystem diversity - relates to the variety of habitats, biological communities, and ecological processes in the biosphere.

Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the foundation of healthy and functioning ecosystems - the fountains of opportunity for all people. Rich soils, clean air, and water abundant forests - the complexity of nature and the myriad species they support- are essential for thriving societies.
Biodiversity is estimated to have contributed 33 trillion US dollars to the global economy (Constanza, et al., 1997) yet few people realize its value.
In the Philippines, the extent of biodiversity loss has reached alarming proportions - so much so that some international experts have proposed to write off as global biodiversity disaster area.

The Global Significance of Philippine Biodiversity:
The Philippines is an archipelago of more than 7,107 islands covering an estimated land area of 30 million hectares. Its archipelagic waters cover an estimated 220 million hectares or approximatel 88% of the Philippine territory. The country's complex geological history and long periods of isolation from the rest of the world have produced varied life forms, water bodies and climatic conditions. These, in trun have, contributed to the wide array of soil, temperature, moisture, and weather regimes and combined with its extensive areas of rainforest and its tropical location, have given rise to high species diversity and endemism.

The country has more than 52,177 described species, of which, more than half ar found nowhere else on earth. There are many more species that are unknown to science.

The Philippines is considered one of the 17 megadiversity countries. As such, Philippine biodiversity is an integral part of our global heritage and is one of the most important countries in the world for conserving diversity of life on earth.

Terminologies:

Threatened Species - species of organism that could become extinct if a critical factor in their environment were changed.
Endangered Species - those species that are present in small number that they are in danger of becoming extinct
Extinct - those species that existed in the past, but representative members can no longer be found at the present

A great number of rare and exotic animals exist only in the Philippines. The country's surrounding waters reportedly have the highest level of biodiversity in the world. But this distinction was soon overshadowed by the fact that the Philippines has been dubbed as the "hottest of the hotspots" by no less than the Conservation International.

The Philippines is considered as a mega diversity country and a global biodiversity hotspot. In the 2000 Red List of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), 418 of the country's 52,177 species were listed as threatened. The country is home to about 9,000 species of flora, a third of which is said to be endemic to the country. It hosts 165 species of mammals, 121 of which can be found only in this part of the world. The Philippine Biodiversity Conservation Priority-setting Program (PBCPP) described these 165 endemic mammal species as endangered or critically endangered.

There are also 332 species of reptiles and amphibians living in the country, 215 of them endemic to the archipelago. It is said that less than 14 of the 114 total species of snakes in the country are poisonous. Several species of frogs and other reptiles remain to be documented. Unfortunately, several species were believed to have vanished without being studied.

In 1953, Albert Herre identified 2,117 species of fish in Philippine waters. These included 330 species of endemic freshwater fish. Whales, dolphins and whale sharks have also been visiting Philippine waters near the islands, allowing sightings by both marine scientists and commercial fishermen. About 500 of the 800 known coral reef species in the world are found in Philippine waters.

The country also has the highest concentration of birds and butterflies in the world. There are some 86 species of birds and 895 species of butterflies in the country. About 352 species of butterflies are endemic to the Philippines.

Many of these biological wonders are now in danger. The main culprit is human's indiscriminate use of the country's natural resources, resulting in an unabated denudation of the Philippine rainforests. In the last 500 years, the Philippines saw the destruction of over 93 percent of its original forest cover. Only about 5 percent of the country's 27,000 square kilometers of coral reefs were in excellent condition.

According to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), the country's total forest size dwindled to 6.7 million hectares in 1990 from 30 million hectares in 1930. At the same time, the forest-to-man ratio shrank to 0.1 hectare per Filipino in 1990 from 1.13 hectares per Filipino in 1930. By 1996, experts claimed that only 1.8 million to 2.4 million hectares or 6 to 8 percent of original vegetation were remaining.

A study by the Philippine Congress said that 123,000 hectares of the country's forest cover are lost every year. The study added that by 2036, there would be no forest left in the Philippines, unless reforestation is started.

In January 2003, a study by the Green Tropics International (GTI) claimed that the Philippines would need P30 trillion to reforest country's denuded mountains in over 85 years.

Problems and Threats

Biodiversity loss in the Philippines stems from 4 broad categories:

Habitat destruction - anthropogenic causes : logging, fires, land conversion, siltation, destructive fishing methods, encroachment and occupance in protected areas. Natural Causes : volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, typhoons, pests and diseases.
Overexploitation - overharvesting and unsutainable use of resources due to poverty, population pressure, ignorance, paucity of livelihood opportunities, wrong values, and unrestrained and unregukated access to natural resources.
Environmental pollution - chemical waste from mine tailings, hazardous wastes from industrial plants, factory discharges, agricultural pesticides and fertilizer, and household wastes. Pollutants overwhelm and overtax the dispersal and self-cleansing capacity of our atmosphere, water bodies and land.
Biological pollution - introduction of exotic species at the expense of the endemic and indigenous species through predation, parasitism, competition, hybridization, and habitat alteration.
Weak Institutional and Legal capacities - inappropriate, ovetapping, conflicting, and obsolete policies and institutions: shortage of technical expertise, shortage of funds, weak information, education, and communication, poor integration of research and development activities.

Impact of Biodiversity Loss in the Philippines

floods and landslides
destruction of crops, fisheries, homes, roads, bridges
shortage in availability
loss of human lives
economic crisis (loss of billions of pesos)

Initiatives/Institutions In-charged of Conservation

PAWB - Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureaus was tasked at handling the establishment and management of the country's protected areas and the conservation of biological diversity.

DENR - was assigned the formulation of the Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development.

PCSD - Philippine Council for Sustainable Development hel fulfill the Philippines' commitment to the Convention on Biological Diversity

NIPAS Act - National Integrated Protected Areas System Act became the basis for the establishment and management of protected areas.

NBSAP - National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan sets forth the strategies and actions that the country will pursue to conserve its biodiversity.

CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY : Agenda 21

2008-09-26T13:57:00.004+08:00

Philippine Agenda 21 is part of the country's response to fulfill its commitments in the historic Earth Summit in 1992 where government and key sectors of society agreed to implement an action agenda for sustainable development, known as the Agenda 2 1.

Philippine Agenda 21 seeks to answer four questions:

Where are we now?

What is sustainable development?

Where do we want to go?

How do we get there?

In answering these questions, the major stakeholders involved in the formulation of the Philippine Agenda 21 found it necessary to seek common ground. The Principles of Unity, forming part of this document, embodies this common ground which unites the key actors in their pursuit of sustainable development.

WHERE ARE WE NOW?

The Current and Emerging Landscape for Sustainable Development

chieving sustainable development is a formidable task. Hence, the journey towards sustainable development must be grounded on a clear understanding of the challenges, trends and opportunities that lie ahead.

Demographic Trends. The Philippines ranks as the 9th most populous country in Asia and 1 4th in the world. The country's population growth, if unabated, will double to 128 million by 2025. Rapid population growth and imbalances in spatial distribution will continue if policy decision-making at all levels of governance does not recognize the relationships among population, resources, environment and development. The crucial role of the Filipino family in the dynamics of these relationships should also be considered.

Cultural Trends. The inherent strengths of the Filipino culture (e.g. openness, freedom of expression, resilience, strong family orientation ) continue to reinforce social cohesion within the Philippine society. These values are also embodied in the growing tradition of local activism. However, it has been observed that some erosion of Filipino cultural values has taken place as manifested by, among others, the commodification of indigenous culture, sexual tourism, consumerism and increasing materialism.

Science and Technology Trends. There have been many positive developments in this area. These include the improved level of contributions of highly skilled Filipino scientists and the growing recognition of the value of indigenous science and technology and holistic science. on the other hand, the sector has its share of problems, such as: the a brain drain" phenomenon; unfair monopoly of intellectual property rights; increasing use of technology as a simplistic response to complex problems; poor quality of science education due to inadequate funding and facilities; among others.

Economic Trends. Positive economic growth rates (as measured by GDP) have benefited certain sectors of Philippine society but do not reflect social decline and inequity nor the deterioration of the environment associated with economic growth. Despite continued economic growth, challenges remain, which include, among others: high level of public indebtedness; low level of savings; large deficits; remaining distortions in the price and incentive system; rampant casualization of labor; and indiscriminate land and ecosystem conversion.

Urbanization Trends. Difficulties in the implementation of agrarian and urban land reform and rural development programs have contributed to unplanned and uncontrolled urbanization. Philippine cities have deteriorated as human habitats, beset with intractable and often interrelated problems like pollution, water shortage, flooding, violence and other social ills.

Human Development Trends. Existing measures of human development indicate some improvement over time. However, these improvements are uneven across geographical, income, gender and ethnic groups. The development of human potential is being affected by continuing challenges such as: rampant substance abuse, break-up of families, economic exploitations and homelessness as evidenced by the growing number of street children.

Environmental Trends. Even with accelerating economic growth, environmental quality is- fast deteriorating as dramatized by the increased incidence of environmental disasters, problems associated with mine tailings, deforestation, pollution, salt water intrusion and a host of other destructive activities. The regenerative capacities of fragmented areas in the biogeographic zones that nurture flora, fauna and natural resources are severely threatened. While advances have been made in the area of biodiversity conservation alongside the growing awareness of the role of indigenous peoples in maintaining the integrity of ecosystems, the Environmental Impact Assessment system continues to be plagued with various enforcement and compliance problems.

Institutional Trends. The Philippines has strong institutional building blocks for sustainable development, including a strong civil society, socially and environmentally- conscious business groups, community empowerment initiatives, devaluation and decentralization. However, these are plagued by ineffective mechanisms for enforcement and implementation, information inadequacies and continuing systemic graft and corruption.

Political Trends. The current wave of globalization is increasingly posing some threat to the country's national sovereignty. Domestically, the rich continue to dominate political processes as evidenced by deep-seated iniquitous structures and processes. The challenge continues for meaningful electoral reforms. Meanwhile, the Local Government Code has reinforced the role of LGUs in development administration. Civil society, as a countervailing force, has been engaging government at all levels.

WHAT IS SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT?

A Conceptual Framework For Sustainable Development

he World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), in its report "our Common Future" published in 1987, defines sustainable development as "meeting the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs".

While sustainable development derives its meaning from the global discourse, its application must be rooted in the context of national realities and aspirations. The Philippine Agenda 21's concept of development is grounded on both an image and a shared vision of the Filipino society. It recognizes the key actors in sustainable development as the government, business and civil society and the functional differentiation of modern society into three realms--economy (where the key actor is business), polity (where the key actor is government) and culture (where the key actor is civil society). The three realms are interacting, dynamic and complementary components of an integral whole.

Thus, the essence of sustainable development is in the harmonious integration of a sound and viable economy, responsible governance, social cohesion/harmony and ecological integrity to ensure that development is a life-enhancing process. The ultimate aim of development is human development now and through future generations.

WHERE DO WE WANT TO GO?

Elements of a Shared Vision

Philippine Agenda 21 envisions a better quality of life for all through the development of a just, moral, creative, spiritual, economically vibrant, caring, diverse yet cohesive society characterized by appropriate productivity, participatory and democratic processes and living in harmony within the limits of the carrying capacity of nature and the integrity of creation.

In concretizing the vision, Philippine Agenda 21 describes a path of images for individuals, families, households and communities; for each ecosystem and across ecosystems in consideration of the interaction of the various lifescapes and landscapes found therein.

The Philippine Agenda 21 adheres to the following principles of sustainable development:

	Primacy of Developing Human Potential
	Holistic Science and Appropriate Technology
	Cultural, Moral and Spiritual Sensitivity
	Self determination
	National Sovereignty
	Gender Sensitivity
	Peace, order and National Unity
	Social Justice and Inter-, Intra-generational and Spatial Equity
	Participatory Democracy
	Institutional Viability
	Viable, Sound and Broad based Economic Development
	Sustainable Population
	Ecological Soundness
	Biogeographical equity and Community Based Resource Management
	Global Cooperation

HOW DO WE GET THERE? Operational Framework and Action Agenda

The Operational Framework of Philippine Agenda 21 consists of a multilevel guide for decision-making consisting of sustainable development criteria, parameters and descriptors. The principles of sustainable development embodied in the vision serve as the criteria which help define the viability of development interventions. The parameters are basic policies from which the key ingredients of a sustainable development strategy are developed. Sustainable development descriptors translate the parameters into specific action strategies.

Operationally, sustainable development is development that draws out the full human potential across ages and generations. It is, at the same time, ecologically friendly, economically sound, politically empowering, socially just, spiritually liberating, gender sensitive, based on holistic science, technologically appropriate, builds upon Filipino values, history, culture and excellence and rests upon strong institutional foundations.

Philippine Agenda 21 provides a comprehensive set of economic, political, cultural scientific and technological, ecological, social, and institutional parameters that flow out of the principles of sustainable development. Development is sustainable if it is fully guided by these parameters.

Philippine Agenda 21 advocates a fundamental shift in development thinking and approach. It departs from traditional conceptual frameworks that emphasize sector based and macro-concerns. Philippine Agenda 21 promotes harmony and achieves sustainability by emphasizing:

A scale of intervention that is primarily area-based. The national and global policy environment
builds upon and support area-based initiatives.

Integrated island development approaches where applicable. This recognizes the archipelagic
character of the Philippines which includes many .small island provinces.

People and the integrity of nature at the saltier of development initiatives. This implies the
strengthening of roles, relationships and interactions between stakeholders in government, civil society,
labor and business. Basic sectors have an important role to play in achieving equity and in managing the
ecosystems that sustain life.

The action agenda of the Philippine Agenda 21 elaborates the mix of strategies that integrate the SD parameters in the country's overall development strategy. In formulating the action agenda, PA 21 has been guided by the key concepts of integration, multi-stakeholdership and consensus building and operationalization.

PA 21 does not duplicate but builds on existing and ongoing initiatives related to sustainable development. Hence, sustainable development in the Philippines is the accumulation of conceptual and operational breakthroughs generated by the Philippine Strategy for Sustainable Development, Social Reform Agenda, Human and Ecological Security, among others. Sustainable development is also a product of the process itself, of engaging various stakeholders and of working in global national and local arenas.

The PA 21 is a document owned by various stakeholders in government and civil society. Hence, the action agenda brings out the important roles of major groups and other stake holders in the sustainable development process.

PA 21 must be identified with doing. This implies concrete policy statements as well as appropriate implementation strategies on the critical issues that will affect sustainable development in the Philippines in the next 30 years, including financing and localization mechanisms.

The journey towards sustainable development involves both a transition and a paradigm shift. Philippine Agenda 21, therefore, adopts a two pronged strategy in defining and mapping out the action agenda:

creating the enabling conditions which would assist various .stakeholders to manage the transition
and at the same time build their capacities towards sustainable development;

direct and proactive efforts at conserving, managing, protecting and rehabilitating ecosystems
through an approach that harmonizes economic, ecological and social goals.

Managing the transition to SD calls for interventions in the following areas:

integrating SD in governance

providing enabling economic policies

investing in human and social capital

mapping out a Legislative Agenda; and

addressing critical and strategic concerns, to include: population management, human health,
food security, human settlements and land use.

These interventions define the Philippine Agenda 21's action agenda across ecosystems.

The action agenda at the level of ecosystems consists of strategic and catalytic interventions covering the following ecosystems and critical resources:

ECOSYSTEMS

forest/upland ecosystem

coastal and marine ecosystem

urban ecosystem freshwater ecosystem

lowland/agricultural ecosystem

CRITICAL RESOURCES

minerals

biodiversity

CHALLENGES AHEAD

Implementing PA 21

he implementation of Philippine Agenda 21 must be anchored on the basic principle of collective choices and responsibility. Forging new partnerships and finding areas of common ground for collaborative action are central to the process of implementation as well as building and strengthening the roles and capacities of major groups and stakeholders; a consolidated and well coordinated effort at information, education and communication advocacy; localization; generating financing means and strategies; and monitoring and assessment.

Strengthening the Role of Major Groups. The identification of key players and how they interact in the whole process provide a basis for deepening the analysis and treatment of the ecosystem, and also for defining the varying roles that various stakeholders are expected to play for achieving sustainable development.

There are two major categories of stakeholders: basic sectors and intermediaries. Basic sectors comprise the farmers and landless rural workers, fisherfolk, indigenous peoples, urban poor, and other disadvantaged groups such as workers in the informal sector, children and youth, persons with disabilities, elderly, disaster victims and overseas contract workers. Intermediaries are composed of formal institutions that include the national and local government units, business and private sectors, non-government organizations, church-based organizations, civic groups and professional associations, mass media and the international community.

The key roles of the major stakeholders are defined according to sectoral needs, motivation or interest and perspectives. Intermediaries can serve as any of the following: (a) brokers of information and appropriate technologies; (b) mobilizers of resources; (c) net workers to strengthen institutional linkages, trainers; and (d) product enhancers.

Basic sectors, on the other hand, can serve as advocates of specific issues and concerns, organizers and mobilizers of community resources, culture bearers, innovators of indigenous approaches and systems, managers and controllers of community resources.

There are common grounds within which these key actors can undertake collaborative actions and interventions.

Localization. The process of localizing Philippine Agenda 21 is a vital element in mainstreaming the action agenda at the local level. In principle, localization shall seek to emulate the following key concepts: multistakeholdership and consensus building, integration and operationalization while respecting the need to preserve the peculiarities inherent in each locality.

The process of localization needs a structure that will ensure coordination and cooperation among the various actors. The structure to be eventually adopted shall be left to the discretion of the local people. Two options, though, can be identified: tapping existing structures such as the Regional Development Council; or creating a separate structure which is a mirror image of the PCSD.

Financing Means and Strategies. The adoption of a mixture of market-based instruments and command and control measures is expected to set into motion financial flows that would help achieve the goals of the PA 21. The strategy aims not only to mobilize funds to support PA 21 activities. More importantly, it aims to help induce changes in production and consumption patterns in favor of the sustainable management of the country's resources.

Financing PA 21 will have to rely heavily on the economic sectors' ability and willingness to incorporate sustainable development principles in the design of their production systems. Market based instruments working in tandem with the application of beneficial and realistic environmental standards through credible enforcement of regulations and sanctions could encourage companies to invest in abatement equipment.

Companies that support philantrophic activities can also be tapped by Philippine Agenda 21 to channel an increasing share for SD initiatives under an environment fund. Pollution charges and other forms of penalties and fines can be collected at rates that will provide an incentive for environmental protection. PA 21 may a1so be considered for inclusion in the Investment Priorities Plan to make environmental investments eligible for fiscal incentives.

Proponents of public and private investment ventures are primarily responsible for making the needed investments for environmental rehabilitation and/or mitigation in compliance with environmental standards. Incorporating such investments in public sector projects can be ensured through government's appraisal procedures.

Information, Education and Communication. The imperatives of sustainable development necessitate a reorientation in the fundamental values of .society. Hence, the formulation and implementation of a comprehensive information, education and communication advocacy plan is part of the efforts to mainstream the principles of PA 21 in the various efforts of all stakeholders.

The IEC Plan for PA 21 would involve a mix of communication strategies .such as: social mobilization, advocacy, social marketing, networking and visioning. The following are some of the strategic messages which shall form the basis of the overall strategy:

Sustainable development is a matter of survival.

The only true development is sustainable development

Avoiding pollution is not necessarily avoiding profit.

Pollution does not pay, Managing pollution pays.

Environmental protection is a corporate responsibility.

Sustainable development begins and ends with you.

Monitoring and Assessment. To effectively assess the implementation of Philippine Agenda 21, a comprehensive monitoring, evaluation and reporting system should be established to guide all stakeholders to meaningfully participate in the process of operationalizing sustainable development. Such a system will also help institute broad-based accountabilities and responsibility for sustainable development among members of society. This .system may include the following elements: (a) a system to coordinate and evaluate the extent to which the Philippine Agenda 21 has been adopted and implemented by all stakeholders; (b) a system to coordinate, support and enhance existing national and loca1 multisectoral as well as sectoral monitoring, evaluation and information exchange on the implementation of initiatives related to Philippine Agenda 21; and (c) a system for reporting, feed backing and utilizing the monitoring and evaluation results on Philippine Agenda 21 for international, national and local stakeholder communities.

NON RENEWABLE RESOURCES

2008-09-26T08:12:00.006+08:00

Natural resource, such as coal, oil, or natural gas, that takes millions of years to form naturally and therefore cannot be replaced once it is consumed; it will eventually be used up. The main energy sources used by humans are non-renewable; renewable resources generate a considerable amount of energy when they are burnt (the process of combustion). Non-renewable resources have a high carbon content because their origin lies in the photosynthetic activity of plants millions of years ago. The fuels release this carbon back into the atmosphere as carbon, such as solar, tidal, wind, and geothermal power, have so far been less exploited. Fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas dioxide. The rate at which such fuels are being burnt is thus resulting in a rise in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a cause of the greenhouse effect.

In short, these are the things that can run out or can be used up. They usually come from the ground. There are fixed amounts of these resources. They are not living things and they are hard to find. They don't regrow and they are not replaced quickly.

Today, scientists find ways to limit the use of these resources of energy to make them more or less sustainable, lasting not just in the current generation, but also to the next.

What are the non-renewable resources?

a. Wood (Trees) -
Once served as the world's chief fuel. In many developing countries where there are lots of forested area, wood is still the main source of energy. It is also a source of livelihood like furniture making and sculpting (wood carvings). Also, the forests areas needed for farming are being indiscrimately burned using the kainging or slash and burn method.
Although easier said than done, the trend must be towards the creation of sustainable forest:
1. Proper education on the value of forest to discourage slash and burns.
2. Harvesting only what is needed.
3. Planting to replace those harvested.
4. Zero-waste management on wood being harvested. Wood chips and grains can be harnessed as biomass energy.

Kaingin or slash and burn method

b. Coal

This is a result of a half a million to even several million years of compression and heat applied to decaying plants growing in bogs or swampy areas. Because of this length of time for nature to form coal, it is considered a non renewable source of energy.

Coal

About 26% of the world's energy still uses coal as their fuel source, whether for producing heat or electrical.
The Philippines has an abundance of coal, especially in Regions II (Cagayan Valley), VI (Panay, Negros Oriental), and XIII or CARAGA (Agusan and Surigao provinces).

The most notable coald-based power plants are Pagbilao 1 and 2 in Quezon province and ACMDC Coal Plant in Cebu.

Problems using Coal
a) accidents in coal mines
b) diseases that result from breathing coal dust
c) strip mining causes erosion of mining sites
d) when burned, coal releases nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide and other impurities that pollute the air, leading to the formation of acid rain.

The main pollutant that cause acid rain, industries eject sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere which becomes part of the clouds and form acid rainSee how the trees become leafless and dead because of their being exposed to acid rain

c. Petroleum
One of the world's most important resources. Its by products are essential in cooking and heating, powering vehicles and airplanes, and even electricity generation.
Most petroleum is removed from deep within the earth as a liquid called crude oil. Workers pump crude oil out of the earth through wells drilled into oil-bearing formation called reservoirs. Because it is liquid, crude oil can be economically transported long distances by pipelines to refineries. Refineries process it into gasoline and other petroleum products.

Greatest Oil Reserves by Country, 2006

Country	Proved reserves (billion barrels)
1.	Saudi Arabia	264.3
2.	Canada	178.8
3.	Iran	132.5
4.	Iraq	115.0
5.	Kuwait	101.5
6.	United Arab Emirates	97.8
7.	Venezuela	79.7
8.	Russia	60.0
9.	Libya	39.1
10.	Nigeria	35.9
11.	United States	21.4
12.	China	18.3
13.	Qatar	15.2
14.	Mexico	12.9
15.	Algeria	11.4
16.	Brazil	11.2
17.	Kazakhstan	9.0
18.	Norway	7.7
19.	Azerbaijan	7.0
20.	India	5.8

Top 20 countries		1224.5 (95%)
Rest of world		68.1 (5%)
World total		1,292.6

NOTES: Proved reserves are estimated with reasonable certainty to be recoverable with present technology and prices.

Source: Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 103, No. 47 (Dec. 19, 2005). From: U.S. Energy Information Administration.

Many parts of the country have shown good indications of the presence of petroleum. The Cagayan Valley, Central Plain of Luzon, Bondoc Peninsula in Quezon, Cebu, Leyte, Cotabato, Palawan, and Sulu Sea, are promising petroleum-bearing areas now. Commercial petroleum deposits have been discovered in the western coast of Palawan.
Top Philippine sites with oil potential includes West Linapacan A/B in Palawan, Carnag-Malampaya in Palawan, Galoc also in Palawan, Maniguin in Mindoro-Cuyo and Matinloc in Palawan.
Problems using petroleum

a. it takes a lot to form.
b. effective environmental management
i. forest ecosystem must be preserved when creating oil pipes.
ii. leak detectors must be present on oil and pipelines to
detect even a minute spill, thus avoiding a bigger one.
c. burning fuels and power plants contribute to the "greenhouse effect"
d. proper maintenance of vehicles and power plants would ensure
proper burning of these fossil fuels.

D. Natural Gas

natural gas comes from deposits in the earth
it is a clean source of energy because it is refined naturally during its formation within the earth and does not require further refining.
natural gas can be compressed into liquid and transported long distances through pipes.
September 27, 2001 marked the entry of the Philippines as a producer of commercial grade natural gas with its discovery at the Malampaya well, off the wester coast of Palawan. It was inaugurated last October 16, 2001 at Malampaya - on shore gas plant in Tabangao, Batangas.
It is a 4.5 billion-dollar project of Shell Philippines Exploration, BV Texaco Philippines, and the Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC-EC)
Potential supply of 8,000 barrels per day and expected income from 8-10 billion dollar.
Top sites with natural gas potential includes Carnaga-Malampaya, San Martin in Palawan, San Antonio in Cagayan and Octon in Palawan.

RENEWABLE RESOURCES

2008-09-23T10:41:00.010+08:00

A natural resource qualifies as a renewable resource if it is replenished by natural resources at a rate comparable or faster than its rate of consumption by humans or other users.Solar radiation, tides, winds, nuclear reactors, geothermal and hydroelectricity are perpetual resources that are in no danger of being used in excess of their long-term availability. The term alas has the connotation of sustainability of the handlings of waste products by the natural environment.Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an atom. Atoms are tiny particles that make up every object in the universe. There is enormous energy in the bonds that hold atoms together.

Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity. But first the energy must be released. It can be released from atoms in two ways: nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined or fused together to form a larger atom. This is how the sun produces energy. In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce electricity.

The fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for nuclear fission is uranium. Uranium is nonrenewable, though it is a common metal found in rocks all over the world. Nuclear plants use a certain kind of uranium, U-235, as fuel because its atoms are easily split apart. Though uranium is quite common, about 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is relatively rare. Most U.S. uranium is mined, in the Western United States. Once uranium is mined the U-235 must be extracted and processed before it can be used as a fuel.

During nuclear fission, a small particle called a neutron hits the uranium atom and splits it, releasing a great amount of energy as heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released. These neutrons go on to bombard other uranium atoms, and the process repeats itself over and over again. This is called a chain reaction.

Nuclear reactors are basically machines that contain and control chain reactions, while releasing heat at a controlled rate. In electric power plants, the reactors supply the heat to turn water into steam, which drives the turbine-generators. The electricity travels through high voltage transmission lines and low voltage distribution lines to homes, schools, hospitals, factories, office buildings, rail systems and other users.

Compared to electricity generated by burning fossil fuels, nuclear energy is clean. Nuclear power plants produce no air pollution or carbon dioxide but a small amount of emissions result from processing the uranium that is used in nuclear reactors.

Like all industrial processes, nuclear power generation has by-product wastes: spent (used) fuels, other radioactive waste, and heat. Spent fuels and other radioactive wastes are the principal environmental concern for nuclear power. Most nuclear waste is low-level radioactive waste. It consists of ordinary tools, protective clothing, wiping cloths and disposable items that have been contaminated with small amounts of radioactive dust or particles. These materials are subject to special regulation that govern their disposal so they will not come in contact with the outside environment.

Solar power is the energy derived directly from the Sun. It is the most abundant source of energy on Earth. The fastest growing type of alternative energy, increasing at 50 percent a year, is the photovoltaic cell, which converts sunlight directly into energy. The Sun yearly delivers more than 10,000 times the energy that humans currently use.

Solar dishes

Wind power is derived from uneven heating of the Earth's surface from the Sun and the warm core. Most modern wind power is generated in the form of electricity by converting the rotation of turbine blades into electrical current by means of an electrical generator. In windmills (a much older technology) wind energy is used to turn mechanical machinery to do physical work, like crushing grain or pumping water.

Windmills in Burgos, Ilocos Norte

Hydropower energy derived from the movement of water in rivers and oceans (or other energy differentials), can likewise be used to generate electricity using turbines, or can be used mechanically to do useful work. It is a very common resource.

Maria Cristina Falls in Iligan City

Geothermal power directly harnesses the natural flow of heat from the ground. The available energy from natural decay of radioactive elements in the earth's crust and mantle is approximately equal to that of incoming solar energy.

The natural heat within the earth is the motor of the "geothermal energy". In fact, the earth serves as a hot water-boiler. The heat of the earth warms up water (fluids) which is trapped in rock formations thousands of feet (3,000 meter) beneath the earth's surface.

Worldwide, the Philippines rank second to the United States in producing geothermic energy. Leyte is of the island in the Philippines where geothermic power plants were developed. The developments here started in 1977 by the company Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC). Many of the geothermic natural resources are still waiting to be "harnessed for steam."

Leyte is one of the Philippine islands where geothermal energy is produced.

In the Philippines geothermal energy already provides 27% of the country's total electricity production generated in power plants. Geothermal power plants are on the islands Luzon, Negros, Mindanao and Leyte.

Geothermal Plant in Tongonan, Leyte

The production of the electricity by geothermal plants is cheaper than the electricity produced in plants by using natural gas and coal. It is even cheaper than electricity produced by hydro power stations.

Biomass Energy or Bioconversion

It is just composed of organic materials, most of which are waste. Sources include composting materials, wood, municipal and city wastes, bagasse, coconut waste and animal waste

From biomass, one can get the following:

ethanol (fermenting high carbohydrate biomass sources)
biodiesel/biofuel (from Jethropa sp.)
fuel oil

Alcohol derived from corn, sugar cane, etc. is also a renewable source of energy. Similarly, oils from plants and seeds can be used as a substitute for non-renewable diesel. Methane is also considered as a renewable source of energy.

MONTREAL PROTOCOL and LEGISLATION about OZONE DEPLETION

2008-09-06T14:49:00.002+08:00

In 1985 the Vienna Convention established mechanisms for international co-operation in research into the ozone layer and the effects of ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs). 1985 also marked the first discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole. On the basis of the Vienna Convention, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was negotiated and signed by 24 countries and by the European Economic Community in September 1987. The Protocol called for the Parties to phase down the use of CFCs, halons and other man-made ODCs.

The Montreal Protocol represented a landmark in the international environmentalist movement. For the first time whole countries were legally bound to reducing and eventually phasing out altogether the use of CFCs and other ODCs. Failure to comply was accompanied by stiff penalties. The original Protocol aimed to decrease the use of chemical compounds destructive to ozone in the stratosphere by 50% by the year 1999. The Protocol was supplemented by agreements made in London in 1990 and in Copenhagen in 1992, where the same countries promised to stop using CFCs and most of the other chemical compounds destructive to ozone by the end of 1995. Fortunately, it has been fairly easy to develop and introduce compounds and methods to replace CFC compounds.

In order to deal with the special difficulties experienced by developing countries it was agreed that they would be given an extended period of grace, so long as their use of CFCs did not grow significantly. China and India, for example, are strongly increasing the use of air conditioning and cooling devices. Using CFC compounds in these devices would be cheaper than using replacement compounds harmless to ozone. An international fund was therefore established to help these countries introduce new and more environmentally friendly technologies and chemicals. The depletion of the ozone layer is a worldwide problem which does not respect the frontiers between different countries. It can only be affected through determined international co-operation.

The Timetable

Montreal Protocol (1987)
CFCs (11, 12, 113, 114, 115): Phase down 1986 levels by 20% by 1994; 50% by 1999.

London Amendment (1990)
CFCs 13, 111, 112, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217: Phase down 1989 levels 20% by 1993; 85% by 1997; 100% by 2000.
Halons (1211, 1301, 2402): Phase down 1986 levels 50% by 1995; 100% by 2000.
Carbon Tetrachloride: Phase down 1989 levels 85% by 1995; 100% by 2000.

Copenhagen Amendment (1992)
CFCs: phase out by 1995
Halons: phase out by 1993
Carbon Tetrachloride: phase out by 1995
HCFCs: phase down 1989 levels 35% by 2004; 90% by 2019; 100% by 2029.

The Montreal Protocol has been further adjusted in Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997) and most recently in Beijing (1999). The Beijing Amendment (1999) has introduced a freezing of HCFC production by 2003.

LEGISLATION

Under the terms of the Montreal Protocol developed nations have ceased production of new CFCs, halons and other ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs) to protect the ozone layer. Trade controls on the supply of these substances have been put in place to ensure compliance with the Protocol. Existing CFCs are re-used and recycled where possible. Nevertheless, the increasing price of CFCs as a result of the ban on new production has led to a wave of international smuggling.

Usually, when ozone-depleting substances are discarded or removed from equipment during the course of maintenance they become controlled waste. In Britain, the 1990 Environmental Protection Act ensured that waste chemicals which may contribute to stratospheric ozone depletion are disposed of as carefully as possibly to avoid any release to the atmosphere.

The production and consumption of new halons (ODCs containing bromine) has already ceased under the terms of the Montreal Protocol. However, whilst replacements have been developed these cannot be used in existing systems, which can only be maintained with recycled halons using surplus material from redundant installations. In the UK the Halon Users’ National Consortium (HUNC) is managing the installed banks of halons, acting as a clearing house putting those who need to continue to use halons in contact with those who do not.

The Montreal Protocol and subsequent London and Copenhagen Amendments have demanded that existing CFCs should be recovered, recycled and re-used where possible. In the UK commercial users of refrigeration and air conditioning appliances can contact the Refrigeration Industry Board to ensure that best industrial practice is maintained during the disposal or re-use of CFCs. Domestic users of old refrigerators can contact their local authority to find out if it operates a CFC recovery and recycling scheme.

The Montreal Protocol works through a system of trade barriers controlling supply to the market of ozone depleting chemicals. Imports of newly produced CFCs and halons by developed countries have already been banned, as have imports and exports in the ODCs carbon tetrachloride and 1,1,1 trichloroethane. Developing countries have been granted a period of grace to comply with the Montreal Protocol, to avoid undue stresses on their growing economies.

As a result of the decline in the production and use of CFCs, and the continuation of CFC production in developing countries (allowed under the provisions of the Montreal Protocol until 2010), the lure of illegal trade in CFCs is obvious. Significant volumes of illegal imports of CFCs into Western Europe have been reported, even though production in Western Europe ceased at the end of 1994. Unfortunately, the Montreal Protocol currently does not require Parties (countries) to implement controls against illegal trade, although they have been urged to install verification programs to reduce illegal trade in ODCs.

MONITORING OZONE DEPLETION

2008-09-06T14:33:00.002+08:00

Monitoring of the ozone layer has increased significantly since the 1980s when the Antarctic ozone hole was first discovered by the British Antarctic Survey. The ozone layer is monitored both by satellites and ground-based resources that are dedicated to observing the destruction of stratospheric ozone.

The main satellite that monitors the ozone layer is the TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer) satellite. The TOMS satellite measures the ozone levels from the back-scattered sunlight in the ultraviolet (UV) range. Another satellite is NASA's UARS (Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite) which was launched in September 1991. This satellite is unique because it was configured to not only measure ozone levels, but also levels of ozone-depleting chemicals. GOME, launched in April 1995 on the ERS-2 satellite, marked the beginning of a long-term European ozone monitoring effort. Scientists receive high quality data on the global distribution of ozone and several other climate-influencing trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere.

In 1987, Canada became the first country in the world to focus on the Arctic ozone layer, following the discovery of the ozone hole over the Antarctic. A cross-country network of monitoring stations has kept continuous watch on Canada’s ozone layer for more than three decades. The existence of these early records, before any major human influence on the upper atmosphere, is vital to understanding the changes that have occurred in the ozone layer.

In the UK, stratospheric ozone levels are monitored every winter and spring at Cambourne in Cornwall and Lerwick in the Shetland Isles.

MEASURING OZONE DEPLETION

The most common stratospheric ozone measurement unit is the Dobson Unit (DU). The Dobson Unit is named after the atmospheric ozone pioneer G.M.B. Dobson who carried out the earliest studies on ozone in the atmosphere from the 1920s to the 1970s. A Dobson Unit measures the total amount of ozone in an overhead column of the atmosphere. Dobson Units are measured by how thick the layer of ozone would be if it were compressed into one layer at 0 degrees Celsius and with a pressure of one atmosphere above it. Every 0.01 millimetre thickness of the layer is equal to one Dobson Unit.

The average amount of ozone in the stratosphere across the globe is about 300 DU (or a thickness of only 3mm at 0°C and 1 atmospheric pressure!). Highest levels of ozone are usually found in the mid to high latitudes, in Canada and Siberia (360DU). When stratospheric ozone falls below 200 DU this is considered low enough to represent the beginnings of an ozone hole. Ozone holes of course commonly form during springtime above Antarctica, and to a lesser extent the Arctic.

OZONE AND THE SEA LIFE

2008-09-06T14:27:00.000+08:00

Plankton form the foundation of aquatic food webs. Plankton are generally found in the upper layer of the oceans in which there is sufficient sunlight to support the photosynthesis of food. Since UV radiation has the ability to penetrate up to 20 metres down in clear water, plankton and other light dependent organisms often experience cell damage, much as human DNA can be damaged by the strong solar radiation. Both plant (phytoplankton) and animal (zooplankton) species are damaged by UV radiation even at current levels. Since UV radiation is absorbed by only a few layers of cells, large organisms are more protected, whilst smaller ones, such as plankton are among the most severely affected by UV radiation. As plankton make up the base of the marine food chain, changes in their number and species composition will influence fish and shellfish production worldwide. These kinds of losses will have a direct impact on the food supply.

UV radiation has also been found to cause damage to the early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and other animals. The most severe effects are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Even at current levels, UV radiation is a limiting factor, and small increases in UV exposure could result in a significant reduction in the size of the population of animals that eat these smaller creatures.

Research indicates that many plankton species already seem to be at or near their maximum tolerance of UV radiation. Thus, even small increases in UV levels as a result of ozone depletion may have a dramatic impact on plankton life and on entire marine ecosystems. If ozone layer depletion reached 15% over temperate waters in the mid-latitudes, it would take fewer than five days in summer for half the zooplankton in the top metre of these waters to die from the increased radiation. Additionally, large amounts of young fish, shrimp and crabs would die before reaching their reproductive age. Less food would be available for adult fish and other higher forms of marine life, and therefore for human consumption. This is of particular relevance, as more than 30% of the world's animal protein for human consumption comes from the sea.

Effects of the ozone hole in Antarctica have already been seen in some of the organisms. Most of the Antarctic organisms have a low tolerance for UV radiation since for much of the year, hardly any direct sunlight reaches the continent. With the reduced ozone in springtime, UV radiation has been able to penetrate the atmosphere with a higher intensity. Already at the base of the Antarctica food chain an impact has been felt. Increased UV radiation has already reduced the plankton populations by between 6% and 12%. Consequently, species higher up have felt the impact.

OZONE AND THE LAND PLANTS

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Excessive UV radiation inhibits the growth processes of almost all green plants. There is concern that ozone depletion may lead to a loss of plant species and reduce global food supply. Plants form the basis of the terrestrial food web, prevent soil erosion and water loss, and are the primary producers of oxygen and a primary removal sink for carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.

Exposure to UV radiation may have a dramatic effect on terrestrial plant life, although the impacts are at present poorly understood. Absorption of UV radiation varies widely from one organism to the next. In general UV radiation affects plant growth by reducing leaf size and limiting the area available for energy capture during photosynthesis. Plant stunting and a reduction in total dry weight are also typically seen in UV-irradiated plants, with a reduction in the nutrient content and the growth of the plants, especially in the pea and cabbage families. A reduction in quality of certain types of tomato, potato, sugar beet and soya bean has also been observed. Forests also appear to be vulnerable. About half of the species of conifer seedlings so far studied have been adversely affected by UV radiation. Although old needles are able to protect themselves by strengthening their outer wax coating and by increasing the amount of protective pigment, young growing pine needles in contrast, suffer easily. Indirect changes caused by UV radiation, such as flowering and germination rates, changes in plant form and how nutrients are distributed within the plant, may be more important than the damaging effects of the radiation itself.

Reliable scientific information on the effects of UV radiation on plants however, is limited. Only 4 out of 10 terrestrial plant ecosystems (temperate forest, agriculture, temperate grassland, and tundra/alpine ecosystems) have been studied. In addition, much of the existing information comes from greenhouses where plants are more sensitive to UV radiation than those grown outdoors. There are indications that some weeds are more UV-resistant than crops. Many organisms have developed mechanisms for protecting themselves against over-exposure to UV radiation, for example by shielding themselves with pigment and repairing damaged DNA or plant tissue. However, for many organisms these mechanisms may not be sufficient to protect against increased levels of UV radiation as a result of ozone depletion.

Exposure tests made in USA and Australia have showed that over one hundred species of land plant could be sensitive to increases in UV radiation as a result of stratospheric ozone depletion. Some research has suggested that a 25% ozone depletion could result in a comparable reduction in total soya bean crop yield. International research has revealed that some species of rice suffer from even minor increases in UV radiation. Research into the efficient breeding and cultivation of strong species may help to offset some of the damaging effects of stratospheric ozone loss.

OZONE AND THE HUMAN HEALTH

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Ozone's unique physical properties allow the ozone layer to act as our planet's sunscreen, providing an invisible filter to help protect all life forms from the Sun's damaging ultraviolet (UV) rays. Most incoming UV radiation is absorbed by ozone and prevented from reaching the Earth's surface. Without the protective effect of ozone, life on Earth would not have evolved the way it has.

The ozone layer protects us from the harmful effects of certain wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. The danger to humans from UV radiation comes mainly from the UV-B range of the spectrum, although UV-A poses some risk if exposure is long enough. UV radiation is harmful to the eyes, can damage the immune system and over time can lead to the development of skin cancers. If ozone in the stratosphere is destroyed, more UV radiation will reach the Earth's surface, and incidences of these health effects will increase.

OZONE AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

UV radiation from the Sun can benefit health, generating vitamin D production in the skin. The required amount of radiation is, however, quite small. In summer, an exposure of 15 minutes to the hands and face is adequate. Vitamin D is also found in food. A normal diet will provide enough vitamin D for people even in winter. In the treatment of some skin diseases such as psoriasis, UV radiation is being effectively exploited. Under a doctor's control, the benefit from the treatment is much greater than any consequential increase in skin cancer risk.

However, over exposure to UV radiation can impair the body's ability to fight off disease, in addition to causing cancer and a range of eye disorders. UV suppresses the immune system, irrespective of skin colour, making it easier for tumours to take hold and spread.

UV radiation suppresses allergic reactions of the skin and affects the immune system. When skin has been over-exposed to UV radiation, the activity of antibody-producing white blood cells is suppressed. These effects are not restricted to the part of skin actually subject to exposure, but may also occur on shielded parts of skin and throughout the whole immune system. As a result, the body fails to produce the antigens required for defence against a variety of diseases. This could have serious consequences, including a much-diminished effectiveness of vaccinations.

At the present time, the significance of a weakening of the immune system caused by UV radiation is not properly understood. The weakening can possibly act to promote the development of skin cancers and worsen infectious diseases stemming from bacteria, viruses and tropical parasites. It may also activate viruses already present on the skin, such as herpes, and lead to an increase in diseases like measles, malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy and fungal infections, all of which have a stage involving the skin. People carrying the herpes virus should protect their faces against strong sunlight.

Scientific research suggests that sunburn can alter the distribution and function of disease-fighting white blood cells in humans for up to 24 hours after exposure to the Sun. In addition, repeated exposure to UV radiation may cause more long-lasting damage to the body's immune system. Whilst little research has been conducted on the effects of decreasing stratospheric ozone on human immunity, it is likely that continued destruction of the ozone layer will lead to further health complications, in addition to skin cancers and eye disorders, as a result of the suppression of our ability to fight off disease.

OZONE AND THE GLOBAL CLIMATE

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Increases in solar UV radiation (click this) as a result of ozone depletion could affect terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles, thereby altering both sources and removal sinks of greenhouse gases, for example carbon dioxide, and possibly other trace gases including man-made pollutants. Likely effects of this may include an increase in air pollution in urban centres, and acid rain in rural areas.

Whilst increases of UV radiation may affect the production and removal of carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse gas, ozone depletion itself can influence the global climate. Ozone is also a greenhouse gas, and as well as filtering out the incoming UV radiation from the Sun, can trap much of the infrared (IR) heat trying to escape the Earth to space. If stratospheric ozone is destroyed, ozone’s contribution to the greenhouse effect is reduced. This could offset some of the global warming due to man-made emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Ironically, as the ozone layer gradually repairs itself during the 21^st century, this cooling potential will be lost. More significantly, the replacement chemicals to CFCs, the HCFCs, which themselves do little harm to the ozone layer, are very strong greenhouse gases, and are further contributing to the potential problem of global warming.

CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFCs)

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Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs (also known as Freon) are non-toxic, non-flammable and non-carcinogenic. They contain fluorine atoms, carbon atoms and chlorine atoms. The 5 main CFCs include CFC-11 (trichlorofluoromethane - CFCl₃), CFC-12 (dichloro-difluoromethane - CF₂Cl₂), CFC-113 (trichloro-trifluoroethane - C₂F₃Cl₃), CFC-114 (dichloro-tetrfluoroethane - C₂F₄Cl₂), and CFC-115 (chloropentafluoroethane - C₂F₅Cl).

CFCs are widely used as coolants in refrigeration and air conditioners, as solvents in cleaners, particularly for electronic circuit boards, as a blowing agents in the production of foam (for example fire extinguishers), and as propellants in aerosols. Indeed, much of the modern lifestyle of the second half of the 20^th century had been made possible by the use of CFCs.

Man-made CFCs however, are the main cause of stratospheric ozone depletion. CFCs have a lifetime in the atmosphere of about 20 to 100 years, and consequently one free chlorine atom from a CFC molecule can do a lot of damage, destroying ozone molecules for a long time. Although emissions of CFCs around the developed world have largely ceased due to international control agreements, the damage to the stratospheric ozone layer will continue well into the 21^st century.

Before the Montreal Protocol, CFCs were used in a variety of industrial and commercial appliances.

DOING OUR BIT FOR THE OZONE LAYER

There are a number of steps that we can all take both as individuals and as groups to protect the Earth's ozone layer. We have all been part of the ozone depletion problem, through the use of chemicals in everyday products. However, we can all be part of the solution.

Following the Montreal Protocol most ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs) have or are being phased out of use in most target applications such as aerosols, refrigeration and air conditioning. However, consumer products bought prior to international agreements may still be in use in our homes and offices and cannot easily be replaced. Large appliances, such as refrigerators, have long lifetimes and early replacement would entail great cost. Proper care and maintenance of equipment to ensure that the CFCs they contain are never released to the atmosphere should be applied. Remember that a single CFC molecule can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules.

In addition, if purchasing fire extinguishers try to avoid any that contain halons, which have bromine in them. Purchase carbon dioxide, water, or dry chemical extinguishers instead. Finally, although foam packaging is CFC-free, some products contain HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorcarbons), which while far less damaging to the ozone layer, could contribute substantially to global warming. Avoid those that do. Use and re-use non-disposable packaging.

Introduction to Ozone Depletion

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Ozone is both beneficial and harmful to us. Near the ground, ozone forming as a result of chemical reactions involving traffic pollution and sunlight may cause a number of respiratory problems, particularly for young children. However, high up in the atmosphere in a region known as the stratosphere, ozone filters out incoming radiation from the Sun in the cell-damaging ultraviolet (UV) part of the spectrum. Without this ozone layer, life on earth would not have evolved in the way it has.

Concentrations of ozone in the stratosphere fluctuate naturally in response to variations in weather conditions and amounts of energy being released from the Sun, and to major volcanic eruptions. Nevertheless, during the 1970s it was realised that man-made emissions of CFCs and other chemicals used in refrigeration, aerosols and cleansing agents may cause a significant destruction of ozone in the stratosphere, thereby letting through more of the harmful ultraviolet radiation. Then in 1985 evidence of a large "ozone hole" was discovered above the continent of Antarctica during the springtime. This has reappeared annually, generally growing larger and deeper each year. More recently, fears have emerged about significant ozone depletion over the Arctic, closer to the more populous regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

In response to this and additional fears about more widespread global ozone depletion, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was implemented in 1987. This legally binding international treaty called for participating developed nations to reduce the use of CFCs and other ozone depleting substances. In 1990 and again in 1992, subsequent Amendments to the Protocol brought forward the phase out date for CFCs for developed countries to 1995.

Protecting the ozone layer is essential. Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun can cause a variety of health problems in humans, including skin cancers, eye cataracts and a reduction in the body's immunity to disease. Furthermore, ultraviolet radiation can be damaging to microscopic life in the surface oceans which forms the basis of the world’s marine food chain, certain varieties of crops including rice and soya, and polymers used in paints and clothing. A loss of ozone in the stratosphere may even affect the global climate.

International agreements and other legislation have gone a long way to safeguarding this life-supporting shield. Nevertheless, for there to be real and long-lasting success, everyone must become part of the solution. Individual efforts taken together can be powerful forces for environmental change. There are a number of things that we, as individuals, can do to both protect the ozone layer. These include proper disposal of old refrigerators, the use of halon-free fire extinguishers and the recycling of foam and other non-disposable packaging. Finally, we should all be aware that whilst emissions of ozone depleters are now being controlled, the ozone layer is not likely to fully repair itself for several decades. Consequently, we should take precautions when exposing ourselves to the Sun.

Causes of Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and destruction of stratospheric ozone is tipped in favour of destruction. Although natural phenomena can cause temporary ozone loss, chlorine and bromine released from man-made compounds such as CFCs are now accepted as the main cause of this depletion.

It was first suggested by Drs. M. Molina and S. Rowland in 1974 that a man-made group of compounds known as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were likely to be the main source of ozone depletion. However, this idea was not taken seriously until the discovery of the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1985 by the British Antarctic Survey.

Chlorofluorocarbons are not "washed" back to Earth by rain or destroyed in reactions with other chemicals. They simply do not break down in the lower atmosphere and they can remain in the atmosphere from 20 to 120 years or more. As a consequence of their relative stability, CFCs are instead transported into the stratosphere where they are eventually broken down by ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun, releasing free chlorine. The chlorine becomes actively involved in the process of destruction of ozone. The net result is that two molecules of ozone are replaced by three of molecular oxygen, leaving the chlorine free to repeat the process:

Cl + O3 ® ClO + O2

ClO + O ® Cl + O2

Ozone is converted to oxygen, leaving the chlorine atom free to repeat the process up to 100,000 times, resulting in a reduced level of ozone. Bromine compounds, or halons, can also destroy stratospheric ozone. Compounds containing chlorine and bromine from man-made compounds are known as industrial halocarbons.

Emissions of CFCs have accounted for roughly 80% of total stratospheric ozone depletion. Thankfully, the developed world has phased out the use of CFCs in response to international agreements to protect the ozone layer. However, because CFCs remain in the atmosphere so long, the ozone layer will not fully repair itself until at least the middle of the 21st century. Naturally occurring chlorine has the same effect on the ozone layer, but has a shorter life span in the atmosphere.

FREON FACTS:

You may have heard much talk about Freon and new refrigerants recently. But besides knowing that it is the substance used to produce cold in your refrigerator, many of its characteristics usually remain a mystery to most.

Some of the more common misconceptions are, that eventually, more Freon needs to be added to the refrigerator, odors in the refrigerator are caused by a leak of this gas, and if it does leak inside the cabinet the food stored there is now contaminated. Surprizingly, none of these are true.

Will my refrigerator ever need to be topped up?

No, unlike automobile air conditioners, refrigerators should never need to be topped up. They never need any more refrigerant than they came with from the factory, unless they develop a hole. Holes can be a result of mechanical damage, or from a defect that shows up later in the refrigerator's life because of unanticipated design faults in the refrigerator. Small holes can exist right from when the refrigerator was new and take from one to six years to show their symptoms. In the past, these refrigerators were merely topped up by technicians. The refrigerator could work normally, while leaking out refrigerant gradually. Nowadays however, topping up is no longer an acceptable practice. The hole must be found and repaired, or the refrigerant must be immediately removed before any more Freon escapes.

I seem to always have a gassy smell in my refrigerator. Does this mean it has a small leak?

No, the only time odor is caused by the substances in the hermetic system, is during a large hole situation. In this case, all the refrigerant leaks out and air enters the system. If the compressor is then allowed to stay running, a few hours or perhaps overnight, a pungent oily odor will occur.

What happens is that the electric motor of the compressor is not designed to cut itself out at temperatures above which it will burn the varnish off its windings in an oxygen atmosphere. The mineral based oil that is present in the hermetic system with the refrigerant also darkens and develops an odor when subjected to high heat and oxygen.

So by the time a hermetic system gives off this kind of odor, your refrigerator would no longer be functioning, not even a little bit. The gassy smell you are noticing is coming from a different source.

In my existing refrigerator, can I have the Freon removed and replaced with new ozone friendly refrigerants?

Yes, currently there are many drop-in replacements that can be substituted in either R12 systems or 134a systems. The most common ones presently used are SP34e and R414. There are also two blended refrigerants R406 and R409 that can be used as direct replacements. The new refrigerants will work in your present refrigerator but can't be mixed with other refrigerants. At this time many technicians are using cross compatible refrigerants such as SP34e and R414 but if enough can be recovered and if your system is still clean and none has escaped or been contaminated by air or moisture, the original R12 or 134a can be put back in if the technician has a bit more to make up the difference in what could be recovered. (no recovery can be 100%). If the company has the right equipment they can remove your existing refrigerant, filter it, then return it into your system after a repair, such as a compressor replacement, is complete. At this time new R12 is no longer available and all new refrigerators use 134a.

134a can't be used in an R12 system . This is because the oil used with 134a is incompatible with the oil used in R12 systems. One of the properties of the oil in a vapor compression system is that it atomizes within the refrigerant and circulates with it. Because of the new cross compatible refrigerants, retrofitting an existing system no matter which refrigerant it used is quite a simple matter.

Is Freon or any of the new replacement gasses flammable or explosive?

Freon or 134a is not, but R406, in certain very remote circumstances, could be. R406 is a blended gas that is made from three separate substances HCFC-22=55%, HCFC-142b=41%, and Isobutane=4%. The small portion of Isobutane can cause this replacement to be weakly flammable during leakage. Because of this and the fact also that HCFC-142b has one of the highest ODP's of the HCFCs, a different blend, R409 is becoming more favorable. It is made of the three substances HCFC-22=60% , HCFC-124=25% , and HCFC- 142b=15% . Notice HCFC-142b is a component of R409 but only 15% and it uses no Isobutane.

Is Freon or any of the new replacement gasses toxic?

No, in fact until recently Freon was, and still is in some instances, used to propel medicine directly into the lungs of asthma sufferers. In 1931 the inventor of Freon, Thomas Midgley made a public demonstration that it was harmless by filling his lungs with the gas then blowing out a candle.

If Freon is so non toxic, why is it being banned?

The current scientific theory states that it is because of Freon's eventual effect on the ozone, high up in the earth's atmosphere. The family of Freon type gasses work their way higher and higher into the atmosphere due to kinetic reaction with the other molecules in the air. When released to the atmosphere Freon gradually rises up, even higher then the ozone layer. Once it is higher than the ozone layer it is no longer protected from ultra violet light. Ultraviolet light acts on Freon by breaking it down to its original components. One of these components is chlorine. The liberated chlorine then starts falling back down through the ozone layer changing ozone molecules back to oxygen. Worse yet, what happens on this molecular level is that just one chlorine molecule can destroy millions of ozone molecules on it's way through.

Why is ozone necessary in our atmosphere?

Ozone, in chemical notation as O3, is merely oxygen with three molecules instead of two. It acts like a filter and prevents harmful infrared and ultraviolet rays from entering the lower atmosphere. This is the spectrum of light that is harmful to life on earth. What happens actually is this light causes DNA. strands, present in all living cells, to tangle. In larger organisms, such as a human being, the effect can cause cancer. The organisms most vulnerable to these harmful rays would be the photo plankton that grow on the surface of our oceans. If they were to be destroyed, the entire food chain would be disrupted. This would catastrophically affect all life as we know it. The entire ecosystem could die, and of course we would go with it.

So releasing Freon into our atmosphere has very serious consequences, so serious that the scientists have set limits on virgin production of tapering off to zero. There are also laws being established to make it a criminal offense for anyone who releases, or causes to be released, any ozone depleting substance including Freon. This is why you should never tamper with your hermetic system. Only professional technicians have the appropriate qualifications and equipment to do this work.

Does this mean I'll eventually have to get rid of my refrigerator because it uses Freon?

At this point the chances of that happening are highly unlikely. Refrigerators use very little Freon usually between 4 and 8 ounces. The chance of them starting to leak during normal operating conditions is quite slight. And unlike an automobile's air conditioner, they never need to be recharged and, for that matter, very seldom get into collisions. :>)

The meaning of the term hermetic means the system is sealed to the atmosphere. On a typical refrigerator compressor , its electric motor runs right in the Freon gas, the only connection to the outside is the three electrical terminals. Another factor in your refrigerator's favor is that there are just so many of them. The new blended drop in replacements for R12, R406 and R409 will currently be available until the year 2020.

How should I get rid of an unwanted refrigerator or freezer?

If you are planning to discard any refrigerating appliance that contains Freon, you should have a qualified technician remove and recycle the Freon. Check on this first though, some landfill sites in larger cities are now providing this service.

There may be an easier way though. If you live in a larger center, chances are there are companies that will come to your home free of charge, or pay you a nominal sum to take your used appliance for parts or resale. Failing this, you could haul it into a larger center and drop it off at an appliance recycling or repair shop on your next shopping trip. Be sure to phone ahead and make arrangements with them first.

Is it environmentally prudent to repair my Freon type refrigerator?

Yes, in fact continuing to use it at this time instead of discarding it and buying a new one, is still kinder to the environment, however this is only my opinion. Of course stores selling new refrigerators may have a different one.

Manufacturers are now finally having to comply with new regulations regarding energy consumption. This could have been done a long time ago but there was no motive. Because of this redesigning though, many "bugs" are present that have to be worked out and sometimes the consumer ends up paying for them. On the large scale across the entire nation, the difference in energy consumption is significant, but on an individual basis it likely won't make that much difference to your power bill if you have a 70's or a 90's design.

What would be nice to see, is regulations on new appliances regarding durability and longevity.

Ozone Hole

In some of the popular news media, as well as in many books, the term "ozone hole" has and often still is used far too loosely. Frequently, the term is employed to describe any episode of ozone depletion, no matter how minor. Unfortunately, this sloppy language trivialises the problem and blurs the important scientific distinction between the massive ozone losses in polar regions and the much smaller, but nonetheless significant, ozone losses in other parts of the world.

Technically, the term "ozone hole" should be applied to regions where stratospheric ozone depletion is so severe that levels fall below 200 Dobson Units (D.U.), the traditional measure of stratospheric ozone. Normal ozone concentration is about 300 to 350 D.U. Such ozone loss now occurs every springtime above Antarctica, and to a lesser extent the Arctic, where special meteorological conditions and very low air temperatures accelerate and enhance the destruction of ozone loss by man-made ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs).

THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL WARMING IN ASIA

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The Asian region spans polar, temperate, and tropical climates and is home to over 3 billion people. As the climate warms, many mountain glaciers may disappear, permafrost will thaw, and the northern forests are likely to shift further north. Rapid population growth and development in countries like China and India will put additional pressures on natural ecosystems and will lead to a rapid rise in the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere unless steps are taken to curtail emissions.

1. Llasa, Tibet -- Warmest June on record, 1998. Temperatures hovered above 77�F for 23 days.

2. Garhwal Himalayas, India -- Glacial retreat at record pace. The Dokriani Barnak Glacier retreated 66 ft (20.1 m) in 1998 despite a severe winter. The Gangorti Glacier is retreating 98 ft (30 m) per year. At this rate scientists predict the loss of all central and eastern Himalayan glaciers by 2035.

3. Tien Shan Mountains, China -- Glacial ice reduced by one quarter in the past 40 years.

4. Southern India - Heat wave, May 2002. In the state of Andhra Pradesh temperatures rose to 120�F, resulting in the highest one-week death toll on record. This heat wave came in the context of a long-term warming trend in Asia in general. India, including southern India, has experienced a warming trend at a rate of 1�F (0.6�C) per century.

5. Nepal - High rate of temperature rise. Since the mid-1970s the average air temperature measured at 49 stations has risen by 1.8�F (1�C), with high elevation sites warming the most. This is twice as fast as the 1�F (0.6�C) average warming for the mid-latitudinal Northern Hemisphere (24 to 40�N) over the same time period, and illustrates the high sensitivity of mountain regions to climate change.

6. Taiwan - Average temperature increase. The average temperature for the island has risen 1.8-2.5�F (1-1.4�C) in the last 100 years. The average temperature for 2000 was the warmest on record.

7. Afghanistan - 2001 - Warmest winter on record. Arid Central Asia, which includes Afghanistan, experienced a warming of 0.8-3.6�F (1-2�C) during the 20th century.

8. Tibet - Warmest decade in 1,000 years. Ice core records from the Dasuopu Glacier indicate that the last decade and last 50 years have been the warmest in 1,000 years. Meteorological records for the Tibetan Plateau show that annual temperatures increased 0.4�F (0.16�C) per decade and winter temperatures increased 0.6�F (0.32�C) per decade from 1955 to 1996.

9. Mongolia - Warmest century of the past millennium. A 1,738-year tree-ring record from remote alpine forests in the Tarvagatay Mountains indicates that 20th century temperatures in this region are the warmest of the last millennium. Tree growth during 1980-1999 was the highest of any 20-year period on record, and 8 of the 10 highest growth years occurred since 1950. The 20th century warming has been observed in tree-ring reconstructions of temperature from widespread regions of Eurasia, including sites in the Polar Urals, Yakutia, and the Taymir Peninsula, Russia. The average annual temperature in Mongolia has increased by about 1.3�F (0.7�C) over the past 50 years.

10. Chokoria Sundarbans, Bangladesh - Flooded mangroves. Rising ocean levels have flooded about 18,500 acres (7,500 hectares) of mangrove forest during the past three decades. Global sea-level rise is aggravated by substantial deltaic subsidence in the area with rates as high as 5.5 mm/year.

11. China - Rising waters and temperature. The average rate of sea-level rise was 0.09 +/- 0.04 inches (2.3 +/- 0.9 mm) per year over the last 30 years. Global sea-level rise was aggravated locally by subsidence of up to 2 inches (5 cm) per year for some regions due to earthquakes and groundwater withdrawal. Also, ocean temperatures off the China coast have risen in the last 100 years, especially since the 1960s.

12. Bhutan - Melting glaciers swelling lakes. As Himalayan glaciers melt glacial lakes are swelling and in danger of catastrophic flooding. Average glacial retreat in Bhutan is 100-130 feet (30-40 m) per year. Temperatures in the high Himalayas have risen 1.8�F (1�C) since the mid 1970s.

13. India - Himalayan glaciers retreating. Glaciers in the Himalayas are retreating at an average rate of 50 feet (15 m) per year, consistent with the rapid warming recorded at Himalayan climate stations since the 1970s. Winter stream flow for the Baspa glacier basin has increased 75% since 1966 and local winter temperatures have warmed, suggesting increased glacier melting in winter.

14. Mt. Everest - Retreating glacier.The Khumbu Glacier, popular climbing route to the summit of Mt. Everest, has retreated over 3 miles (5 km) since 1953. The Himalayan region overall has warmed by about 1.8�F (1�C) since the 1970s.

15. Kyrgyzstan - Disappearing glaciers. During 1959-1988, 1,081 glaciers in the Pamir-Altai disappeared. Temperatures in the mountains of Kyrgyztan have increased by 0.9-2.7� F (0.5-1.5�C) since the 1950s.

16. Siberia - Melting permafrost. Large expanses of tundra permafrost are melting. In some regions the rate of thawing of the upper ground is nearly 8 inches (20 cm) per year. Thawing permafrost has already damaged 300 buildings in the cities of Norilsk and Yakutsk. In Yakutsk, the average temperature of the permanently frozen ground has warmed by 2.7 �F (1.5�C) during the past 30 years.

17. Indonesia -- Malaria spreads to high elevations. Malaria was detected for the first time as high as 6,900 feet (2103 m) in the highlands of Irian Jaya in 1997.

18. Philippines -- Coral reef bleaching.

19. Indian Ocean -- Coral reef bleaching (inclues Seychelles; Kenya; Reunion; Mauritius; Somalia; Madagascar; Maldives; Indonesia; Sri Lanka; Gulf of Thailand [Siam]; Andaman Islands; Malaysia; Oman; India; and Cambodia).

20. Persian Gulf -- Coral reef bleaching.

21. Korea -- Heavy rains and flooding. Severe flooding struck during July and August, 1998, with daily rainfall totals exceeding 10 inches (25.4 cm).

22. Indonesia -- Burning rainforest, 1998. Fires burned up to 2 million acres (809,371 hectares) of land, including almost 250,000 acres (101,172 hectares) of primary forest and parts of the already severely reduced habitat of the Kalimantan orangutan.

23. Khabarovsk, Russia -- Wildfires threaten tiger habitat, 1998. Drought and high winds fueled fires that destroyed 3.7 million acres (1,497,337 hectares) of taiga and threatened two important nature reserves that are habitat for the only remaining Amur tigers.

24. Bangladesh - Link between stronger El Ni�o events and cholera prevalence. Researchers found a robust relationship between progressively stronger El Ni�o events and cholera prevalence, spanning a 70-year period from 1893-1940 and 1980-2001. There has been a marked intensification of the El Ni�o/Southern Oscillation phenomenon since the 1980s, which is not fully explained by the known shifts in the Pacific basin temperature regime that began in the mid-1970s. Findings by Rodo et al. are consistent with model projections of El Ni�o intensification under global warming conditions. The authors make a strong case for the climate-health link by providing evidence for biological sensitivity to climate, meteorological evidence of climate change, and evidence of epidemiological change with global warming. The study likely represents the first piece of evidence that warming trends over the last century are affecting human disease.

25. Lake Baikal, Russia - Shorter freezing period. Winter freezing is about 11 days later and spring ice breakup is about 5 days earlier compared to a century ago. Some regions of Siberia have warmed by as much as 2.5�F (1.4�C) in just 25 years.

26. Iran - Desiccated wetlands, 2001 Ninety percent of wetlands have dried up after 2 years of extreme drought. Much of South West Asia has experienced a prolonged three-year drought that is unusual in its magnitude. Out of 102 years of record, 1999, 2000, and 2001 rank as the fifth, third, and seventh driest on record. 1999-2000 was the driest winter on record.

27. Pakistan - Longest drought on record, 1999-2001. The prolonged three-year drought, which covers much of South West Asia, has affected 2.2 million people and 16 million livestock in Pakistan.

28. Tajikistan - Lowest rainfall in 75 years, 2001. 2001 marked the third consecutive year of drought, which has destroyed half the wheat crop.

29. Korea - Worst drought in 100 years of record, 2001. It coincided with an average annual temperature increase in Asia�s temperate region, which includes Korea, by more than 1.8�F (1�C) over the past century. The warming has been most pronounced since 1970.

30. China - Disappearing Lakes, 2001. More than half of the 4,000 lakes in the Qinghai province are disappearing due to drought. The severity of the impact is exacerbated by overpumping of aquifers. Annual average temperature in China has increased during the past century, with pronounced warming since 1980. Most of the warming has been in northern areas, including Qinghai Province, and in the winter.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 8749

2008-09-04T18:03:00.003+08:00

This law is also known as the "Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999." This is an act providing for a comprehensive air pollution control policy and for other purposes.

To view the full text of R.A. 8749, visit this website:

http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1999/ra_8749_1999.html

WHAT IS GLOBAL WARMING?

2008-09-04T13:33:00.007+08:00

	What causes global warming?
	Carbon dioxide and other air pollution that is collecting in the atmosphere like a thickening blanket, trapping the sun's heat and causing the planet to warm up. Coal-burning power plants are the largest U.S. source of carbon dioxide pollution -- they produce 2.5 billion tons every year. Automobiles, the second largest source, create nearly 1.5 billion tons of CO2 annually. Here's the good news: technologies exist today to make cars that run cleaner and burn less gas, modernize power plants and generate electricity from nonpolluting sources, and cut our electricity use through energy efficiency. The challenge is to be sure these solutions are put to use.

	Is the earth really getting hotter?
	Yes. Although local temperatures fluctuate naturally, over the past 50 years the average global temperature has increased at the fastest rate in recorded history. And experts think the trend is accelerating: the 10 hottest years on record have all occurred since 1990. Scientists say that unless we curb global warming emissions, average U.S. temperatures could be 3 to 9 degrees higher by the end of the century.

	Are warmer temperatures causing bad things to happen?
	Global warming is already causing damage in many parts of the United States. In 2002, Colorado, Arizona and Oregon endured their worst wildfire seasons ever. The same year, drought created severe dust storms in Montana, Colorado and Kansas, and floods caused hundreds of millions of dollars in damage in Texas, Montana and North Dakota. Since the early 1950s, snow accumulation has declined 60 percent and winter seasons have shortened in some areas of the Cascade Range in Oregon and Washington. Of course, the impacts of global warming are not limited to the United States. In 2003, extreme heat waves caused more than 20,000 deaths in Europe and more than 1,500 deaths in India. And in what scientists regard as an alarming sign of events to come, the area of the Arctic's perennial polar ice cap is declining at the rate of 9 percent per decade.

	Is global warming making hurricanes worse?
	Global warming doesn't create hurricanes, but it does make them stronger and more dangerous. Because the ocean is getting warmer, tropical storms can pick up more energy and become more powerful. So global warming could turn, say, a category 3 storm into a much more dangerous category 4 storm. In fact, scientists have found that the destructive potential of hurricanes has greatly increased along with ocean temperature over the past 35 years.

	Is there really cause for serious concern?
	Yes. Global warming is a complex phenomenon, and its full-scale impacts are hard to predict far in advance. But each year scientists learn more about how global warming is affecting the planet, and many agree that certain consequences are likely to occur if current trends continue. Among these: Melting glaciers, early snowmelt and severe droughts will cause more dramatic water shortages in the American West. Rising sea levels will lead to coastal flooding on the Eastern seaboard, in Florida, and in other areas, such as the Gulf of Mexico. Warmer sea surface temperatures will fuel more intense hurricanes in the southeastern Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Forests, farms and cities will face troublesome new pests and more mosquito-borne diseases. Disruption of habitats such as coral reefs and alpine meadows could drive many plant and animal species to extinction.
	Could global warming trigger a sudden catastrophe?
	Recently, researchers -- and even the U.S. Defense Department -- have investigated the possibility of abrupt climate change, in which gradual global warming triggers a sudden shift in the earth's climate, causing parts of the world to dramatically heat up or cool down in the span of a few years. In February 2004, consultants to the Pentagon released a report laying out the possible impacts of abrupt climate change on national security. In a worst-case scenario, the study concluded, global warming could make large areas of the world uninhabitable and cause massive food and water shortages, sparking widespread migrations and war. While this prospect remains highly speculative, many of global warming's effects are already being observed -- and felt. And the idea that such extreme change is possible underscores the urgent need to start cutting global warming pollution.

	What country is the largest source of global warming pollution?
	The United States. Though Americans make up just 4 percent of the world's population, we produce 25 percent of the carbon dioxide pollution from fossil-fuel burning -- by far the largest share of any country. In fact, the United States emits more carbon dioxide than China, India and Japan, combined. Clearly America ought to take a leadership role in solving the problem. And as the world's top developer of new technologies, we are well positioned to do so -- we already have the know-how.

	How can we cut global warming pollution?
	It's simple: By reducing pollution from vehicles and power plants. Right away, we should put existing technologies for building cleaner cars and more modern electricity generators into widespread use. We can increase our reliance on renewable energy sources such as wind, sun and geothermal. And we can manufacture more efficient appliances and conserve energy.

	Why aren't these technologies more commonplace now?
	Because, while the technologies exist, the corporate and political will to put them into widespread use does not. Many companies in the automobile and energy industries put pressure on the White House and Congress to halt or delay new laws or regulations -- or even to stop enforcing existing rules -- that would drive such changes. From requiring catalytic converters to improving gas mileage, car companies have fought even the smallest measure to protect public health and the environment. If progress is to be made, the American people will have to demand it.

	Do we need new laws requiring industry to cut emissions of global warming pollution?
	Yes. The Bush administration has supported only voluntary reduction programs, but these have failed to stop the growth of emissions. Even leaders of major corporations, including companies such as DuPont, Alcoa and General Electric, agree that it's time for the federal government to create strong laws to cut global warming pollution. Public and political support for solutions has never been stronger. Congress is now considering fresh proposals to cap emissions of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping pollutants from America's largest sources -- power plants, industrial facilities and transportation fuels. Stricter efficiency requirements for electric appliances will also help reduce pollution. One example is the 30 percent tighter standard now in place for home central air conditioners and heat pumps, a Clinton-era achievement that will prevent the emission of 51 million metric tons of carbon -- the equivalent of taking 34 million cars off the road for one year. The new rule survived a Bush administration effort to weaken it when, in January 2004, a federal court sided with an NRDC-led coalition and reversed the administration's rollback.

	Is it possible to cut power plant pollution and still have enough electricity?
	Yes. First, we must use more efficient appliances and equipment in our homes and offices to reduce our electricity needs. We can also phase out the decades-old, coal-burning power plants that generate most of our electricity and replace them with cleaner plants. And we can increase our use of renewable energy sources such as wind and sun. Some states are moving in this direction: California has required its largest utilities to get 20 percent of their electricity from renewable sources by 2017, and New York has pledged to compel power companies to provide 25 percent of the state's electricity from renewable sources by 2013.

	How can we cut car pollution?
	Cost-effective technologies to reduce global warming pollution from cars and light trucks of all sizes are available now. There is no reason to wait and hope that hydrogen fuel cell vehicles will solve the problem in the future. Hybrid gas-electric engines can cut global warming pollution by one-third or more today; hybrid sedans, SUVs and trucks from several automakers are already on the market. But automakers should be doing a lot more: They've used a legal loophole to make SUVs far less fuel efficient than they could be; the popularity of these vehicles has generated a 20 percent increase in transportation-related carbon dioxide pollution since the early 1990s. Closing this loophole and requiring SUVs, minivans and pick-up trucks to be as efficient as cars would cut 120 million tons of carbon dioxide pollution a year by 2010. If automakers used the technology they have right now to raise fuel economy standards for new cars and light trucks to a combined 40 m.p.g., carbon dioxide pollution would eventually drop by more than 650 million tons per year as these vehicles replaced older models.

	What can I do to help fight global warming?
	There are many simple steps you can take right now to cut global warming pollution. Make conserving energy a part of your daily routine. Each time you choose a compact fluorescent light bulb over an incandescent bulb, for example, you'll lower your energy bill and keep nearly 700 pounds of carbon dioxide out of the air over the bulb's lifetime. By opting for a refrigerator with the Energy Star label -- indicating it uses at least 15 percent less energy than the federal requirement -- over a less energy-efficient model, you can reduce carbon dioxide pollution by nearly a ton in total.

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Philippines: Global warming to cause famine in RP by 2020
Source: Copyright 2008, Manila Times
Date: April 20, 2008
Byline: Rhaydz B. Barcia
Original URL

Scientists warned the Philippines could experience famine by 2020, as the adverse impact of global warming takes its toll on natural resources.

One of those scientists was Lourdes Tibig, climate data chief of the central office of the national weather agency, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (Pag-asa). She and others attended the roundtable discussion of scientists and community development practitioners on disaster and climate risk reduction and climate change adaptation, organized by the Center for Initiatives and Research on Climate Adaptation, of the Albay provincial government.

Tibig said the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) fourth assessment report showed global warming is unequivocal, causing ice caps to melt and sea levels to rise.

“We have pumped enough greenhouse gases into the atmosphere to warm the planet for many decades to come. The earth’s natural system will be affected for decades even if greenhouse gas emissions are reduced now,” she said.

“There are projected increases from 1.1 degrees Celsius to 6.4 degrees Celsius during the 21st century, and for the next two decades, a warming of about 0.2 degrees Celsius per decade is projected, meaning severe drought occurrences and frequent flooding are expected to happen in the Philippines,” Tibig told participants here.

“The impact of climate change on agriculture will be very bad,” she added.

She said the observed mean annual temperature anomalies in the Philippines increased by 0.8904 degrees Celsius from 1951 to 2006. And she added that the increase in minimum temperature is almost three times the increase in maximum temperatures. “When there is an increase of temperature, expect more typhoons, and as the years progressed, typhoons are now crossing in Northern Luzon.”

Tibig predicted that from 2050 and beyond, the agriculture sector will be vulnerable.

“If we do not act immediately, some 1.4 billion global population will adversely suffer from famine. So there is an urgent need to address the climate change phenomenon for us to adapt and mitigate the impact of it,” she said.

Director Shiela Encabo of the National Economic and Development Authority said climate change is causing more severe typhoons, like Reming that pummeled the Bicol region in 2006. That typhoon destroyed at least $90-million worth of agricultural products and infrastructure.

Scientists believe Bicol, on the southern part of Luzon, is the most vulnerable to global warming because of its location.

“There is a need for us to work together,” Encabo said. “Local initiatives across the country should be mobilized to address and adapt mitigation schemes on climate change. To date, only Gov. Joey Salceda of Albay initiated the project on climate change that are not waiting for an international assistance to go through adaptation.”

Jose Ramon “Jiff” Villarin, a Catholic priest and president of Xavier University in Cagayan de Oro City, said climate change should be addressed globally and locally.

“There has to be a concerted [effort] and global action to mitigate and stabilize atmospheric carbon [emissions] by instituting common [action] by differentiated responsibilities. Whatever you’re doing to environment today, you’re doing it to climatic change,” he said.

Two ways of addressing climate change is through reforestation and reducing disaster risk, he said. “We need to act responsibly for sustainability [and this] means leaving something for another day for our children.”

Copyright 2008, Manila Times

Top 10 Things You Can Do to Reduce Global Warming

Burning fossil fuels such as natural gas, coal, oil and gasoline raises the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and carbon dioxide is a major contributor to the greenhouse effect and global warming.

You can help to reduce the demand for fossil fuels, which in turn reduces global warming, by using energy more wisely. Here are 10 simple actions you can take to help reduce global warming.

1. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Do your part to reduce waste by choosing reusable products instead of disposables. Buying products with minimal packaging (including the economy size when that makes sense for you) will help to reduce waste. And whenever you can, recycle paper, plastic, newspaper, glass and aluminum cans. If there isn't a recycling program at your workplace, school, or in your community, ask about starting one. By recycling half of your household waste, you can save 2,400 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.

2. Use Less Heat and Air Conditioning

Adding insulation to your walls and attic, and installing weather stripping or caulking around doors and windows can lower your heating costs more than 25 percent, by reducing the amount of energy you need to heat and cool your home.

Turn down the heat while you’re sleeping at night or away during the day, and keep temperatures moderate at all times. Setting your thermostat just 2 degrees lower in winter and higher in summer could save about 2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide each year.

3. Change a Light Bulb

Wherever practical, replace regular light bulbs with compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs. Replacing just one 60-watt incandescent light bulb with a CFL will save you $30 over the life of the bulb. CFLs also last 10 times longer than incandescent bulbs, use two-thirds less energy, and give off 70 percent less heat.

If every U.S. family replaced one regular light bulb with a CFL, it would eliminate 90 billion pounds of greenhouse gases, the same as taking 7.5 million cars off the road.

4. Drive Less and Drive Smart

Less driving means fewer emissions. Besides saving gasoline, walking and biking are great forms of exercise. Explore your community’s mass transit system, and check out options for carpooling to work or school.

When you do drive, make sure your car is running efficiently. For example, keeping your tires properly inflated can improve your gas mileage by more than 3 percent. Every gallon of gas you save not only helps your budget, it also keeps 20 pounds of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.

5. Buy Energy-Efficient Products

When it's time to buy a new car, choose one that offers good gas mileage. Home appliances now come in a range of energy-efficient models, and compact florescent bulbs are designed to provide more natural-looking light while using far less energy than standard light bulbs.

Avoid products that come with excess packaging, especially molded plastic and other packaging that can't be recycled. If you reduce your household garbage by 10 percent, you can save 1,200 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.

6. Use Less Hot Water

Set your water heater at 120 degrees to save energy, and wrap it in an insulating blanket if it is more than 5 years old. Buy low-flow showerheads to save hot water and about 350 pounds of carbon dioxide yearly. Wash your clothes in warm or cold water to reduce your use of hot water and the energy required to produce it. That change alone can save at least 500 pounds of carbon dioxide annually in most households. Use the energy-saving settings on your dishwasher and let the dishes air-dry.

7. Use the "Off" Switch

Save electricity and reduce global warming by turning off lights when you leave a room, and using only as much light as you need. And remember to turn off your television, video player, stereo and computer when you're not using them.

It's also a good idea to turn off the water when you're not using it. While brushing your teeth, shampooing the dog or washing your car, turn off the water until you actually need it for rinsing. You'll reduce your water bill and help to conserve a vital resource.

8. Plant a Tree

If you have the means to plant a tree, start digging. During photosynthesis, trees and other plants absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. They are an integral part of the natural atmospheric exchange cycle here on Earth, but there are too few of them to fully counter the increases in carbon dioxide caused by automobile traffic, manufacturing and other human activities. A single tree will absorb approximately one ton of carbon dioxide during its lifetime.

9. Get a Report Card fromYour Utility Company

Many utility companies provide free home energy audits to help consumers identify areas in their homes that may not be energy efficient. In addition, many utility companies offer rebate programs to help pay for the cost of energy-efficient upgrades.

10. Encourage Others to Conserve

Share information about recycling and energy conservation with your friends, neighbors and co-workers, and take opportunities to encourage public officials to establish programs and policies that are good for the environment.

These 10 steps will take you a long way toward reducing your energy use and your monthly budget. And less energy use means less dependence on the fossil fuels that create greenhouse gases and contribute to global warming.

Solid Waste Management:

2008-08-29T08:37:00.029+08:00

Basel Convention Definition of Wastes

Wastes are “substances or objects which are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are required to be disposed of by the provisions of the law”

Disposal means

“any operation which may lead to resource recovery, recycling, reclamation, direct re-use or alternative uses (Annex IVB of the Basel convention)”

Kinds of Wastes

Solid wastes: domestic, commercial and industrial wastes especially common as co-disposal of wastes

Examples: plastics, styrofoam containers, bottles, cans, papers, scrap iron, and other trash

Liquid Wastes: wastes in liquid form

Examples: domestic washings, chemicals, oils, waste water from ponds, manufacturing industries and other sources

Classification of Wastes according to their Properties

Biodegradable waste is a type of waste, typically originating from plant or animal sources, which may be broken down by other living organisms. Waste that cannot be broken down by other living organisms may be called non-biodegradable.

Biodegradable waste can be commonly found in municipal solid waste (sometimes called biodegradable municipal waste, or BMW) as green waste, food waste, paper waste, and biodegradable plastics. Other biodegradable wastes include human waste, manure, sewage, slaughterhouse waste.

Classification of Wastes according to their Effects on Human Health and the Environment

Hazardous wastes

Substances unsafe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally, or economically that are shipped, transported to or brought from the country of origin for dumping or disposal in, or in transit through, any part of the territory of the Philippines

Non-hazardous wastes

Substances safe to use commercially, industrially, agriculturally, or economically that are shipped, transported to or brought from the country of origin for dumping or disposal in, or in transit through, any part of the territory of the Philippines.

Sources of Wastes

Households

Commerce and Industry

Agriculture

Fisheries

Waste Generation by Country(Global Waste Survey Final Report Published by IMO 1995)*

Waste Generation in the Philippines

In Metro Manila:

It is estimated that 25 million m3 of acid and alkaline liquid waste is disposed of annually from the electronics industry.
Almost 2,000 m3 of solvents and 22,000 tonnes of heavy metals, infectious wastes, biological sludges, lubricants and intractable wastes are disposed of on land or into water courses.
4,000 tonnes of solid wastes are generated daily. Of these, only about 3,400 tonnes are collected and transported to existing sites.

EFFECTS OF WASTES IF NOT PROPERLY MANAGED:

Affects our health
Affects our socio-economic conditions
Affects our coastal and marine environmenT
Affects our climate

EFFECTS OF WASTES:

GHGs(GreenHouse Gases) are accumulating in Earth’s atmosphere as a result of human activities, causing global mean surface air temperature and subsurface ocean temperature to rise.
Rising global temperatures are expected to raise sea levels and change precipitation and other local climate conditions.
Changing regional climates could alter forests, crop yields, and water supplies.
This could also affect human health, animals, and many types of ecosystems.
Deserts might expand into existing rangelands, and features of some of our national parks might be permanently altered.
Some countries are expected to become warmer, although sulfates might limit warming in some areas.
Scientists are unable to determine which parts of those countries will become wetter or drier, but there is likely to be an overall trend toward increased precipitation and evaporation, more intense rainstorms, and drier soils.
Whether rainfall increases or decreases cannot be reliably projected for specific areas.

Activities that have altered the chemical composition of the atmosphere:

Buildup of GHGs primarily carbon dioxide (CO2) methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N20).
C02 is released to the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels, wood and wood products, and solid waste.
CH4 is emitted from the decomposition of organic wastes in landfills, the raising of livestock, and the production and transport of coal, natural gas, and oil.
N02 is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels. In 1977, the US emitted about one-fifth of total global GHGs.

WHAT SHOULD BE DONE:

REDUCE WASTE:

Reduce office paper waste by implementing a formal policy to duplex all draft reports and by making training manuals and personnel information available electronically.
Improve product design to use less materials.
Redesign packaging to eliminate excess material while maintaining strength.
Work with customers to design and implement a packaging return program.
Switch to reusable transport containers.
Purchase products in bulk.

RE-USE:

Reuse corrugated moving boxes internally.
Reuse office furniture and supplies, such as interoffice envelopes, file folders, and paper.
Use durable towels, tablecloths, napkins, dishes, cups, and glasses.
Use incoming packaging materials for outgoing shipments.
Encourage employees to reuse office materials rather than purchase new ones.

Donate/Exchange:

old books
old clothes
old computers
excess building materials
old equipment to local organizaitions

RESIDENTS ARE ORGANIZED INTO SMALL GROUPS TO CARRY OUT THE FOLLOWINGl

construction of backyard compost pit
construction of storage bins where recyclable and reusable materials are stored by each household
construction of storage centers where recyclable and reusable materials collected by the street sweepers are stored prior to selling to junk dealers
maintenance of cleanliness in yards and streets
greening of their respective areas
encourage others to join

Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000

2008-08-27T11:02:00.008+08:00

In the light of growing garbage problem in the country, Republic Act (RA) 9003 also known as the Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000 was enacted by the Philippine Government.

The Environmental Management Bureau (EMB), mandated to initiate the programs in line with R.A 9003 together with the Local Government Units briefed further on this Act, during the seminar on Solid Waste Management December 6.

"The unsystematic disposal and collection of our wastes have posed a tough job for our government. With the modernization of society, we have come to accumulate more wastes than we can manage to dispose of properly. Left unmanaged and improperly disposed, wastes can cause serious heath problems to everyone. Moreover, a dirty environment defeats the aesthetic potential of our surrounding," the Bureau in its statement.

In return, RA 9003 provides for a systematic and comprehensive Ecological Solid Waste Management (ESWM) program for all sectors of society to adopt and implement.

Below is a portion of the RA 9003.

REPUBLIC ACT NO. 9003
(ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT ACT OF 2000)

AN ACT PROVIDING FOR AN ECOLOGICAL SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT PROGRAM, CREATING THE NECESSARY
INSTITUTIONAL MECHANISMS AND INCENTIVES, DECLARING CERTAIN ACTS PROHIBITED AND PROVIDING PENALTIES, APPROPRIATING FUNDS THEREFOR, AND FOR OTHER PURPOSES.

CHAPTER I

BASIC POLICIES

Article 1

General Provisions

SECTION 1. Short Title. - This Act shall be known as the "Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000."

Sec. 2. Declaration of Policies. - It is hereby declared the policy of the State to adopt a systematic, comprehensive and ecological solid waste management program which shall:

(a) Ensure the protection of the public health and environment;

(b) Utilize environmentally-sound methods that maximize the utilization of valuable resources and encourage resource conservation and recovery;

(c) Set guidelines and targets for solid waste avoidance and volume reduction through source reduction and waste minimization measures, including composting, recycling, re-use, recovery, green charcoal process, and others, before collection, treatment and disposal in appropriate and environmentally sound solid waste management facilities in accordance with ecologically sustainable development principles;

(d) Ensure the proper segregation, collection, transport, storage, treatment and disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adoption of the best environmental practice in ecological waste management excluding incineration;

(e) Promote national research and development programs for improved solid waste management and resource conservation techniques, more effective institutional arrangement and indigenous and improved methods of waste reduction, collection, separation and recovery;

(f) Encourage greater private sector participation in solid waste management;

(g) Retain primary enforcement and responsibility of solid waste management with local government units while establishing a cooperative effort among the national government, other local government units, non- government organizations, and the private sector;

(h) Encourage cooperation and self-regulation among waste generators through the application of market-based instruments;

(i) Institutionalize public participation in the development and implementation of national and local integrated, comprehensive, and ecological waste management programs; and

(j) Strength the integration of ecological solid waste management and resource conservation and recovery topics into the academic curricula of formal and non-formal education in order to promote environmental awareness and action among the citizenry.

Article 2

Definition of Terms

Sec. 3. Definition of Terms. - For the purposes of this Act:

(a) Agricultural waste shall refer to waste generated from planting or harvesting of crops, trimming or pruning of plants and wastes or run-off materials from farms or fields;

(b) Bulky wastes shall refer to waste materials which cannot be appropriately placed in separate containers because of either its bulky size, shape or other physical attributes. These include large worn-out or broken household, commercial, and industrial items such as furniture, lamps, bookcases, filing cabinets, and other similar items;

(d) Buy-back center shall refer to a recycling center that purchases of otherwise accepts recyclable materials from the public for the purpose of recycling such materials;

(e) Collection shall refer to the act of removing solid waste from the source or from a communal storage point;

(f) Composting shall refer to the controlled decomposition of organic matter by micro-organisms, mainly bacteria and fungi, into a humus-like product;

(g) Consumer electronics shall refer to special waste that includes worn-out, broken, and other discarded items such as radios, stereos, and TV sets;

(h) Controlled dump shall refer to a disposal site at which solid waste is deposited in accordance with the minimum prescribed standards of site operation;

(i) Department shall refer to the Department of Environment and Natural Resources;

(j) Disposal shall refer to the discharge, deposit, dumping, spilling, leaking or placing of any solid waste into or in an land;

(k) Disposal site shall refer to a site where solid waste is finally discharged and deposited;

(l) Ecological solid waste management shall refer to the systematic administration of activities which provide for segregation at source, segregated transportation, storage, transfer, processing, treatment, and disposal of solid waste and all other waste management activities which do not harm the environment;

(m) Environmentally acceptable shall refer to the quality of being re-usable, biodegradable or compostable, recyclable and not toxic or hazardous to the environment;

(n) Generation shall refer to the act or process of producing solid waste;

(o) Generator shall refer to a person, natural or juridical, who last uses a material and makes it available for disposal or recycling;

(p) Hazardous waste shall refer to solid waste management or combination of solid waste which because of its quantity, concentration or physical, chemical or infectious characteristics may:

(1) cause, or significantly contribute to an increase in mortality or an increase in serious irreversible, or incapacitating reversible, illness; or

(2) pose a substantial present or potential hazard to human health or the environment when improperly treated, stored, transported, or disposed of, or otherwise managed;

(q) Leachate shall refer to the liquid produced when waste undergo decomposition, and when water percolate through solid waste undergoing decomposition. It is contaminated liquid that contains dissolved and suspended materials;

(r) Materials recovery facility - includes a solid waste transfer station or sorting station, drop-off center, a composting facility, and a recycling facility

(s) Municipal waste shall refer to wastes produced from activities within local government units which include a combination of domestic, commercial, institutional and industrial wastes and street litters;

(t) Open dump shall refer to a disposal area wherein the solid wastes are indiscriminately thrown or disposed of without due planning and consideration for environmental and Health standards;

(u) Opportunity to recycle shall refer to the act of providing a place for collecting source-separated recyclable material, located either at a disposal site or at another location more convenient to the population being served, and collection at least once a month of source-separated recyclable material from collection service customers and to providing a public education and promotion program that gives notice to each person of the opportunity to recycle and encourage source separation of recyclable material;

(v) Person(s) shall refer to any being, natural or judicial, susceptible of rights and obligations, or of being the subject of legal relations;

(w) Post-consumer material shall refer only to those materials or products generated by a business or consumer which have served their intended end use, and which have been separated or diverted from solid waste for the purpose of being collected, processed and used as a raw material in the manufacturing of recycled product, excluding materials and by-products generated from, and by-products generated from, and commonly used within an original manufacturing process, such as mill scrap;

(x) Receptacles shall refer to individual containers used for the source separation and the collection of recyclable materials;

(y) Recovered material shall refer to material and by products that have been recovered or diverted from solid waste for the purpose of being collected, processed and used as a raw material in the manufacture of a recycled product;

(z) Recyclable material shall refer to any waste material retrieved from the waste stream and free from contamination that can still be converted into suitable beneficial use or for other purposes, including, but not limited to, newspaper, ferrous scrap metal, non-ferrous scrap metal, used oil, corrugated cardboard, aluminum, glass, office paper, tin cans and other materials as may be determined by the Commission;

(aa) Recycled material shall refer to post-consumer material that has been recycled and returned to the economy;

(bb) Recycling shall refer to the treating of used or waste materials through a process of making them suitable for beneficial use and for other purposes, and includes any process by which solid waste materials are transformed into new products in such a manner that the original product may lose their identity, and which maybe used as raw materials for the production of other goods or services: Provided, That the collection, segregation and re-use of previously used packaging material shall be deemed recycling under this Act;

(cc) Resource conversation shall refer to the reduction of the amount of solid waste that are generated or the reduction of overall resource consumption, and utilization of recovered resources;

(dd) Resources recovery shall refer to the collection, extraction or recovery of recyclable materials from the waste stream for the purpose of recycling, generating energy or producing a product suitable for beneficial use: Provided, That such resource recovery facilities exclude incineration;

(ee) Re-use shall refer to the process of recovering materials intended for the same or different purpose without the alteration of physical and chemical characteristics;

(ff) Sanitary landfill shall refer to a waste disposal site designed, constructed, operated and maintained in a manner that exerts engineering control over significant potential environment impacts arising from the development and operation of the facility;

(gg) Schedule of Compliance shall refer to an enforceable sequence of actions or operations to be accomplished within a stipulated time frame leading to compliance with a limitation, prohibition or standard set forth in this Act or any rule of regulation issued pursuant thereto;

(hh) Secretary landfill shall refer to the Secretary of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources;

(ii) Segregation shall refer to a solid waste management practice of separating different materials found in solid waste in order to promote recycling and re-use of resources and to reduce the volume of waste for collection and disposal;

(jj) Segregation at source shall refer to a solid waste management practice of separating, at the point of origin, different materials found in solid waste in order to promote recycling and re-use of resources and to reduce the volume of waste for collection and disposal;

(kk) Solid waste shall refer to all discarded household, commercial waste, non-hazardous institutional and industrial waste, street sweepings, construction debris, agricultural waste, and other non-hazardous/non-toxic solid waste.

Unless specifically noted otherwise, the term “solid waste” as used in this Act shall not include:

(1) Waste identified or listed as hazardous waste of a solid, liquid, contained gaseous or semisolid form which may cause or contribute to an increase in mortality or in serious or incapacitating reversible illness, or acute/chronic effect on the health of persons and other organisms;

(2) Infectious waste from hospitals such as equipment, instruments, utensils, and fomites of a disposable nature from patients who are suspected to have or have been diagnosed as having communicable diseases and must therefore be isolated as required by public health agencies, laboratory wastes such as pathological specimens (i.e. all tissues, specimens of blood elements, excreta, and secretions obtained from patients or laboratory animals) and disposable fomites that may harbor or transmit pathogenic organisms, and surgical operating room pathologic materials from outpatient areas and emergency rooms; and

(3) Waste resulting from mining activities, including contaminated soil and debris.

(ll) Solid waste management shall refer to the discipline associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing, and disposal of solid wastes in a manner that is in accord with the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, conservation, aesthetics, and other environmental considerations, and that is also responsive to public attitudes;

(mm) Solid waste management facility shall refer to any resource recovery system or component thereof; any system, program, or facility for resource conservation; any facility for the collection, source separation, storage, transportation, transfer, processing, treatment, or disposal of solid waste;

(nn) Source reduction shall refer to the reduction of solid waste before it enters the solid waste stream by methods such as product design, materials substitution, materials re-use and packaging restrictions;

(oo) Source separation shall refer to the sorting of solid waste into some or all of its component parts at the point of generation;

(pp) Special wastes shall refer to household hazardous wastes such as paints, thinners, household batteries, lead-acid batteries, spray canisters and the like. These include wastes from residential and commercial sources that comprise of bulky wastes, consumer electronics, white goods, yard wastes that are collected separately, batteries, oil, and tires. These wastes are usually handled separately from other residential and commercial wastes;

(qq) Storage shall refer to the interim containment of solid wastes after generation and prior to collection for ultimate recovery or disposal;

(rr) Transfer stations shall refer to those facilities utilized to receive solid wastes, temporarily store, separate, convert, or otherwise process the materials in the solid wastes, or to transfer the solid wastes directly from smaller to larger vehicles for transport. This term does not include any of the following:
(1) a facility whose principal function is to receive, store, separate, convert or otherwise process in accordance with national minimum standards, manure;
(2) a facility, whose principal function is to receive, store, convert, or otherwise process wastes which have already been separated for re-use and are intended for disposals, and
(3) the operations premises of a duly licensed solid waste handling operator who is receives, stores, transfers, or otherwise processes wastes as an activity incidental to the conduct of a refuse collection and disposal business.

(ss) Waste diversion shall refer to activities which reduce or eliminate the amount of solid waste from waste disposal facilities;

(tt) White goods shall refer to large worn-out or broken household, commercial, and industrial appliances such as stoves, refrigerators, dishwashers, and clothes washers and dryers collected separately. White goods ate usually dismantled for the recovery of specific materials (e.g., copper, aluminum, etc.);

(uu) Yard waste shall refer to wood, small or chipped branches, leaves, grass clippings, garden debris, vegetable residue that is recognized as part of a plant or vegetable and other materials identified by the Commission.

To read the full text of RA 9003, please visit these websites

http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/philippines_citizenship_act_9003.html

http://www.tanggol.org/environmental_laws/IRR_ra9003.html

TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS

2008-08-06T09:43:00.004+08:00

Tropical Rain Forests

Rain forests are found in the tropics. Forming a thick, lush carpet of vegetation with a stunningly diverse array of species, tropical rain forests of the world once covered an area about the size of the United States. Today, tropical rain forests have been reduced by half, and logging continues at a feverish pace in many areas. Some experts think that tropical rain forests in all but a few places could be virtually obliterated early in the next century if nations do not enact strict measures to protect them.

A forest is that portion of the public domain where there is a predominant growth of trees. It is an area of land where plants and animal live together in close association, bound by specific and recognizable patterns of interdependence. Philippine forests are called tropical rain forests because of the country's tropical location and the amount of rainfall received (over 200 cm a year).

Of all the world's forests, it is those in the tropics that face the greatest threat from mankind. Tropical rainforests are one of nature's treasures, and many of them are now at risk. We have already destroyed half of the world's original tropical rainforests! Just in a few decades, we can possibly witness the complete elimation of the world's rainforests. Technically, this type of forest can be defined as a forest in the tropics receiving 4-8 meters of rain each year. Tropical rainforests are found in Central and South America, Southeast Asia and islands near it, and West Africa. There are smaller rainforests in northern Australia and other small islands. All tropical rainforests are found along the equator where the temperatures and the humidity is always high, with the days being equal to the nights.

Tropical Rainforest Layers

Tropical rainforests have four layers:

Emergent Layer
These giant trees thrust above the dense canopy layer and have huge mushroom-shaped crowns. These trees enjoy the greatest amount of sunlight but also must endure high temperatures, low humidity, and strong winds.

Canopy Layer
The broad, irregular crowns of these trees form a tight, continuous canopy 60 to 90 feet above the ground. The branches are often densely covered with other plants (epiphytes) and tied together with vines (lianas). The canopy is home to 90% of the organisms found in the rain forest; many seeking the brighter light in the treetops.

Understory
Receiving only 2-15% of the sunlight that falls on the canopy, the understory is a dark place. It is relatively open and contains young trees and leafy herbaceous plants that tolerate low light. Many popular house plants come from this layer. Only along rivers and roadways and in treefall and cut areas is sunlight sufficient to allow growth to become thick and impenetrable.

Forest Floor
The forest floor receives less than 2% of the sunlight and consequently, little grows here except plants adapted to very low light. On the floor is a thin layer of fallen leaves, seeds, fruits, and branches that very quickly decomposes. Only a thin layer of decaying organic matter is found, unlike in temperate deciduous forest.

Did you know that enough rainforests are being destroyed every minute to fill 50 football fields? We need to preserve these valuable resources because they are the lungs of our planet, and can possibly hold cures for many of our most deadly diseases. The tropical rainforests are a critical link in the ecological chains of our our earth's biosphere.

Despite covering only 2% of our planet's surface, over half of the earth's animal, insect species, and flora live there. Within a four mile square area of a tropical rainforest, you would find:

Over 750 species of trees
1500 different kinds of flowering plants
125 species of mammals
400 species of birds
100 reptiles
60 amphibians
countless insects
150 species of butterflies

**Only 1% of these species has ever been studied**

Important Facts

Amazon rainforests produce about 40% of the world's oxygen
One in four pharmaceuticals comes from a plant in the tropical rainforests
1400 rainforest plants are believed to offer cures for cancer
40% of tropical rainforests have already been lost in Latin America and Southeast Asia

Animals in the Tropical Rain Forests

AGOUTI
The agouti is a large, short-tailed rodent from rainforests in the Americas.

ALLIGATOR
Alligators are large reptiles. Primitive alligators evolved during the late Triassic period.

AMPHIBIAN
Amphibians (meaning "double life") are vertebrate animals that live in the water during their early life (breathing through gills), but usually live on land as adults (and breathe with lungs). There are three groups (orders) of amphibians: newts and salamanders; frogs and toads; and caecilians.

Anaconda
The biggest snake in the world.

ANT
Ants are social insects.

APES
Apes are primates that anatomically resemble humans. They include the gorilla, chimpanzee, bonobo, orangutan, gibbon and siamang.

ASSASSIN BUG
Assassin bugs are insects that eat other insects.

AYE-AYE
A strange, nocturnal primate from Madagascar.

BASILISK
A South American lizard that can walk on water.

BAT
A bat is a flying mammal.

BINTURONG
A dark, furry mammal from rainforests of southeast Asia.

BIRDS
Many birds live in the canopy of rainforests. Birds have feathers and wings. Birds may be the descendants of theropod dinosaurs.

Blue Morpho Butterfly
A brilliant blue butterfly from rainforests of South and Central America.

Blue-tongued Skink
An Australian lizard with a long, blue tongue.

BOA CONSTRICTOR
A large constricting snake from South and Central America.

BONGO
The bongo is a large, striped antelope from African forests.

BONOBO
Bonobos are closely related to chimpanzees. They are very intelligent, peaceful primates.

BUTTERFLIES
Butterflies are flying insects with two pairs of wings, a proboscis, and clubbed antennae. They belong to the Order Lepidoptera and the Family Rhopalocera. Many butterflies thrive in tropical rainforests.

CAIMAN
The caiman is a widely distributed, medium-sized crocodilian. It is about 6.5-8 ft (2-2.5 m) long. The caiman is widely distributed in Central America and northern South America, ranging from southern Mexico to Peru and Brazil. The caiman is the most widely distributed of the New World crocodilians; it is found in almost all of the lowland wetlands and riverine habitats in its range. It prefers still, fresh water. Juveniles are yellow with black spots and bands; adults are a dull olive green to black with a paler belly. These carnivores eat fish (including piranha), amphibians, reptiles and water birds, using their 72-78 teeth. Females lay about many eggs in late summer in soil-and-vegetation nests.

CAPYBARA
The capybara is the world's largest rodent. It has no tail and partially-webbed feet. It lives on river banks.

CASSOWARY
A huge, flightless bird from Australian rainforests. It has a helmet-like crest on its head.

CATERPILLAR
A caterpillar is the larval stage of butterflies and moths. Caterpillars eat almost constantly and molt many times as they grow.

CHIMPANZEE
Chimpanzees are very intelligent mammals (primates).

CHLAMYDOSAURUS
Chlamydosaurus (meaning "caped lizard") is a rare, modern-day frilled lizard native to New Guinea and North Australia. Its frill is a 7-14 inch (18-34 cm) flap of skin that completely circles its head. It opens this brightly-colored frill to frighten enemies. Adults are over 8 inches (20 cm) long. These climbing lizards live in trees in humid forests and eat cicadas, ants, spiders and smaller lizards. It can run quadrupedally (on all four legs) and bipedally (with the front legs off the ground). Adult females lay 8 to 14 eggs per clutch in spring and summer. Classification: Class Reptilia, Order: Squamata, Family: Agamidae, Genus Chlamydosaurus, Species kingii (named by Gray in 1825).

COATI
(pronounced ko-WAH-ti) Coati (also called coatimundi) are long-nosed, long-tailed mammals from the Americas.

COCKATOO
Cockatoos are birds with a large, feathery crest and a hooked bill.

COYPU.
Coypus (also called nutrias) are semi-aquatic rodents that are originally from South America

CROCODILIAN
Crocodilians are the order of archosaurs that includes alligators, crocodiles, gavials, etc. They evolved during the late Triassic period and are a type of reptile.

CUCKOO
The cuckoo is a bird whose call sounds like its name. Many cuckoos live in rainforest canopies throughout the world.

DHOLE
The dhole is a wild dog from Asia.

DODO
The dodo is an extinct, flightless bird that lived on an island in the Indian Ocean near Africa.

DRAGONFLY
Dragonflies are primitive, flying insects that can hover in the air. They evolved during the Mississippian Period, about 360-325 mya. Huge dragonflies with wingspans up to 27.5 inches (70 cm) existed during the Mesozoic Era (when the dinosaurs lived).

ELECTRIC EEL
A fish that can generate electricity, the electric eel lives in the Amazon River basin of South America.

EMERALD TREE BOA
The emerald tree boa, Corallus caninus, is a green snake with white bands. It grows to be up to 7.25 feet (2.2m) long. It lives in trees and shrubs near water (like swamps and marshes in rain forests) in the lower Amazon basin (in Brazil) and in Guyana and Suriname. This snake catches food with its long teeth then squeezes it. It eats birds and rodents. This snake is nocturnal (it is most active at night) and bears live young.

FOSSA
The fossa is a meat-eating mammal from the island of Madagascar.

FRILLED LIZARD
Chlamydosaurus (meaning "caped lizard") is a rare, modern-day frilled lizard native to New Guinea and North Australia. Its frill is a 7-14 inch (18-34 cm) flap of skin that completely circles its head. It opens this brightly-colored frill to frighten enemies. Adults are over 8 inches (20 cm) long. These climbing lizards live in trees in humid forests and eat cicadas, ants, spiders and smaller lizards. It can run quadrupedally (on all four legs) and bipedally (with the front legs off the ground). Adult females lay 8 to 14 eggs per clutch in spring and summer. Classification: Class Reptilia, Order: Squamata, Family: Agamidae, Genus Chlamydosaurus, Species kingii (named by Gray in 1825).

FROG
Frogs are amphibians. They start out as gilled, swimming tadpoles, but grow to be air-breathing adults.

Fruit Bat
Fruit bats are large bats that eat fruits and flowers.

GECKO
Geckos are the only lizards that make noise. Some geckos live in rainforests.

Giant Anteater
The biggest anteater, from South and Central America.

GIBBON
Gibbons are rare, small, slender, long-armed, tree-dwelling apes from Asia.

GOLDEN LION TAMARIN
A small, golden-haired arboreal tamarin from rainforests in Brazil.

GOLIATH BIRDWING BUTTERFLY
The Goliath Birdwing (Ornithoptera goliath) is the second-largest butterfly in the world. This brightly-colored butterfly is poisonous and has a wingspan up to 11 inches (28 cm) wide. It has black, yellow and green wings and a yellow and black body. This butterfly in found in tropical forests in Indonesia. Family Papilionidae.

GORILLA
Gorillas are large primates from Africa. They are in danger of extinction.

GRAY PARROT
The African Gray Parrot is an intelligent, talkative bird from rainforests in Western and Central Africa.

GREATER APES
The great apes (family Pongidae) include the gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and orangutans.

GREEN IGUANA
Plant-eating lizards from moist habitats.

HARPY EAGLE
The Harpy Eagle is one of the largest eagles in the world. It lives in rainforests of Central and South America.

HOWLER MONKEY
The loudest monkey and the largest New World monkey.

HUMAN BEING
A human being is a mammal (a type of primate). Some people live in rainforests

INSECTS
Insects have an exoskeleton, a three-part body, and six legs. They evolved during the Silurian Period, 438 to 408 mya, long before dinosaurs existed. Insects are the most numerous animals in rainforests.

JAGUAR
The jaguar is a large, spotted wild cat from South and Central America.

JULIA
The Julia is a yellow-orange tropical butterfly from the Americas, about 3-4 inches wide. It belongs to the group of Heliconians, tropical butterflies that have a bad taste and smell, and a large head. The eggs are round. The pupa is angular. The Julia feeds on passion flowers (Passiflora). Julias are found from South and Central America to the southern USA.

KAKAPO
A large, flightless, nocturnal, solitary parrot from New Zealand.

KEEL BILLED TOUCAN
A rainforest bird with a huge, colorful beak.

KINKAJOU
A long-tailed, nocturnal mammal from rainforests in the Americas.

KOMODO DRAGON
The biggest lizard in the world and a fierce predator.

LEAFCUTTER ANT
Leafcutter ants are fungus farmers - they grow their own food.

LEMUR
Lemurs are large-eyed primates from Madagascar.

LEOPARD
Leopards are widely-distributed, spotted wild cats.

LESSER APES
The lesser apes (family Hylobatidae) include the gibbon and siamang.

LIZARD
There are 2,500 types of lizards, many of which live in rainforests around the world.

MAMMAL
Mammals are warm-blooded animals with hair. They nourish their young with milk. Mammals evolved during the Triassic period. Many mammals live in rainforests, including gorillas, sloths, jaguars, and people.

MANDRILL
Mandrills are large, brightly-colored monkeys.

MILLIPEDE
Segmented plant-eaters with many, many legs.

MONARCH BUTTERFLY
The Monarch (Danaus plexippus) is a common poisonous butterfly found worldwide. It eats milkweed in its larval stage and lays eggs on the poisonous milkweed plant. Monarchs have a wingspan of 3 3/8 - 4 7/8 inches (8.6 - 12.4 cm).

MONKEY
There are two types of monkeys: Old World monkeys from Asia and Africa, and New World monkeys from the Americas.

Morpho Butterfly
The Blue Morpho is a brilliant blue butterfly from rainforests of South and Central America.

MOSQUITO
A small flying insect that is a carrier of disease.

MOTH
Moths are winged insects that belong to the Order Lepidoptera. Moths have feathered antennae (not clubbed antennae, like butterflies), a frenulum or jugum, and are generally dull colored. There are over 100,000 moth species alive today.

MOUSE
Mice are small rodents with long, hairless tails.

NUTRIA.
Nutrias (also called coypus) are semi-aquatic rodents that are originally from South America

OCELOT
Ocelots are wild cats from the Americas.

OKAPI
The Okapi is a nocturnal, giraffe-like mammal from African rainforests.

ORANGUTAN
Orangutans are large, tree-dwelling apes from southeast Asia.

OROPENDOLA, CRESTED
The crested oropendola is a tropical black bird that builds long, pendulous nests.

OWL
Owls are nocturnal birds with large eyes and very good eyesight. Some owls live in rainforests.

PEAFOWL (Peacocks and Peahens)
Peafowl are magnificent birds from India.

POISON ARROW FROG
Poison arrow frogs are poisonous frogs from rainforests of South and Central America. Some South American Indians apply the poison to the tips of their hunting arrows and blow-gun darts.

PRIMATE
Primates are mammals that include monkeys, apes, lemurs (prosimians), and people. All primates have 5 fingers on each hand and 5 toes on each foot. They have color vision.

QUEEN ALEXANDRA'S BIRDWING BUTTERFLY
Queen Alexandra's Birdwing is the biggest butterfly in the world, with a wingspan up to 1 ft (30 cm) wide. The female is brown with cream spots and larger than the male. The male is brown with blue and green markings; it has a bright yellow abdomen. The caterpillar is black with red tentacles, and with a cream-colored spot in the middle of its body. This rare butterfly is found in the lowland forests of northern Papua New Guinea (east of the Owen Stanley Mountains).

QUETZAL
A quetzal is a beautiful rain forest bird with very long tail feathers.

QUOLL
The Quoll is a cat-sized carnivorous marsupial from the islands of Tasmania and Australia.

RAINBOW LORIKEET
A small, colorful, brush-tongued parrot from Australia.

RAT
A rat is a rodent with a long tail.

RED-EYED TREE FROG
A small rainforest frog with bright red eyes.

REPTILE
Reptiles (meaning"to creep") are a group of animals that have scales (or modified scales), breathe air, and usually lay eggs. The term reptile is loosely defined in everyday English to mean scaly, cold-blooded, egg-laying animals. In cladistics (a way of classifying life forms), the reptiles are more strictly defined as: all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of the turtles, lepidosaurs (lizards, snakes, tuataras), and archosaurs (crocodilians, dinosaurs, and birds). The maintenance of body temperature (cold- vs. warm-blooded) is not a factor in this classification, but skull and egg structure are.

SATURN BUTTERFLY
The Saturn Butterfly (Zeuxidia amethystus) has a wingspan of about 3.9-4.3 inches (10-11cm) and lives in the shady forest understory. The female is paler than the male (above). The Saturn Butterfly is found in Malaysia, Borneo, the Philippines, Burma, and Sumatra. It was named by Butler in 1865. Classification: Family Nymphalidae (Subfamily Morphinae).

SCARLET MACAW
A brilliantly-colored parrot from Central and South American rain forests.

SCORPION
A venomous arachnid with a large stinger on its tail. Found worldwide except in Antarctica.

SIAMANG
The siamang is a rare, black, long-armed ape, a type of gibbon.

SKIPPER
Skippers (family Hesperiidae) are drab-colored, moth-like butterflies that are distinguished by the hook at the end of their antennae (instead of a club, like other butterflies have). These antennae are also farther apart at the base than other butterflies. There are about 2,000 different species of Skippers. They fly in a darting fashion (hence their name) and hold their wings in a moth-like fashion when at rest. The Australian Skipper also has a humeral lobe (a frenulum-like projection on its hind wing which holds the forewings and hind wings together during flight).

SLOTH
The sloth is a slow-moving mammal that lives in trees. Sloths spend most of their lives hanging upside-down from tree branches; they eat, sleep, mate, and give birth upside-down in the trees. They hold onto tree branches with strong, curved claws that are on each of their four feet. These plant-eaters are more active at night; they eat leaves, tender young shoots, and fruit. Sloths have a thick brown (and slightly-greenish) fur coat and are about the size of a cat (roughly 2 feet = 61 cm long). Their coloration and their slow actions make them almost disappear in the forest canopy. Some sloths have colonies of green algae encrusting their fur, both adding to the camouflage effect and providing some nutrients to the sloths, who lick the algae. These mostly-quiet mammals live in the tropical rainforests of South and Central America. Sloths may live 10-20 years in the wild. Sloths are hunted by jaguars, eagles, and man. Classification: Class Mammalia, Order Xenarthra, Family Bradypodidae and Megalonychidae.

SLUG
The slug is an animal that lives in moist areas.

SMALL-EARED ZORRO
The small-eared zorro is a dog-like fox from South American rainforests.

SNAKE
A snake is a reptile with no legs. Its skin is scaly. There are many snakes in rainforests.

SPECTACLED CAIMAN
The Spectacled Caiman is a common meat-eating reptile from fresh water habitats in South and Central America.

SWALLOWTAIL BUTTERFLY
Swallowtail butterflies (family Papilionidae) are strong fliers with three fully developed pairs of legs. Many swallowtails have distinctive tailed wings (hence the family name). They lay spherical eggs. These butterflies are found from the tropics to more temperate regions.

SUGAR GLIDER
This small marsupial (also known as the lesser flying phalanger) glides from tree to tree in Australia and nearby islands.

TAPIR
A plant-eating, hoofed mammal with a small trunk.

TARANTULA
A tarantula is a large, hairy spider.

TARSIER
Tarsiers are small mammals with enormous eyes.

THREE-TOED SLOTH
The sloth is a slow-moving mammal that lives hanging upside-down from trees.

TIGER
Tigers are large, fierce Asian cats that have stripes. They live mostly in forests in India, Sumatra, Indochina, and Siberia. Tigers are threatened with extinction due to loss of habitat.

TOAD
Toads are amphibians with poison glands. They usually have warty skin.

TOUCAN
A South American rainforest bird with a huge, colorful beak.

TURTLE
Turtles have a protective shell on their body. They are anapsids, having no extra holes in the sides of their heads. Turtles evolved during the late Triassic period, roughly 220 million years ago, about the same time the dinosaurs and mammals evolved. Proganochelys is the oldest known turtle.

ULYSSES BUTTERFLY
The ulysses is a spectacular swallowtail butterfly from Australia.

UMBRELLABIRD
A bird with a large tuft of feathers on its head.

WHITE-TAILED DEER
The White-Tailed Deer is a shy, fast-moving plant-eater.

XENOPS
The Xenops is a rainforest bird from the Americas.

ZODIAC MOTH
The Zodiac moth (Alcides zodiaca) is a large moth that looks like a swallowtail butterfly (but like all moths, it rests with its wings outspread). Its rounded wings have large brown and cream/purple stripes. This moth lives in Australian tropical rainforests. It drinks flower nectar through its proboscis. The Zodiac moth is diurnal (most actice during the day).

ZORRO
The small-eared zorro is a dog-like fox from South American rainforests.

SAVANNAH

2008-08-05T17:43:00.005+08:00

A savanna is a hot, seasonally dry grassland with scattered trees. This environment is intermediate between a grassland and a forest. Savannas are located in the dry tropics and the subtropics, often bordering a rainforest. Savannas have an extended dry season and a rainy season.

Animal Adaptations: The animals that live in savannas have adapted to a great deal of variability in the food supply throughout the year; there are times of plenty (during and after the wet season) and times of almost no food or water (during the dry season). Many savanna animals migrate to deal with this problem.

Where are Savannas? Savannas are located in Africa, Madagascar (an island off the east coast of Africa), Australia, South America, India, and the Myanmar-Thailand region of Southeast Asia.

Climate

The climate in the Savannah stays about the same from month to month. It never gets very warm and most of the time it doesn't get below freezing. In July the temperature was 17.9 degrees celsius and in December of that same year it was 22.4 degrees celsius. The rainfall each month varies, sometimes the savannah gets a large amount of rain and sometimes it gets very little. For example in June and July 5.1 inches of rain fell and in April 40.1 inches fell.

Vegetation

In the Savannah there are not many plants or trees. The two major trees are palm and acacias. There are a few wild fruit trees and the rest of the land is grassland. The trees are spreadout throughout the grasslands. There is never bunches of trees or trees in a group. Grasses and small plants dominate the Savannahs, and tree growth is sparse only in areas of deep soil, or where cracks in the surface hardpan and permit tree roots to reach down to the meager water table.

The umbrella like acacias are very typical of African savannahs. They are a very important species for many animals since they provide additional food and some scant shade for animals. Palm trees are also very important since they offer some shelter and food. The birds and other animals eat off of the wild fruit trees.

Tree growth is so sparse because it rains only once in awhile and the soil soaks it up fast and then there's no more rain for the rest of the year.

Animals in Savannah

Aardvark
Aardvarks are large mammals that eat ants.

African Elephant
The African Elephant is the largest land animal.

African Wild Cat
African Wild Cats are fierce, solitary hunters.

Anteater
Anteaters are mammals with very long snouts from South and Central America.

Antelope
Antelopes are graceful mammals with beautiful horns.

Ant
Ants are social insects.

Asian Elephant
The Asian Elephant is an endangered species.

Baboon
The baboon is a large monkey with a long snout and large cheek pouches.

Black Caiman
The black caiman is a meat-eating reptile from South America that can be found on seasonally-flooded savannas.

Boa Constrictor
A large constricting snake from South and Central America.

Cape Buffalo
Cape Buffalo are large, hoofed mammals that live in African savannas.

Cape Hunting Dog
The Cape Hunting Dog hunts in packs in Africa.

CHEETAH
The cheetah is the fastest land animal. Or go to a simple cheetah coloring printout (just the image).

Earthworm
An earthworm is a little animal with a long, soft body and no legs.

Fossa
The fossa is a meat-eating mammal from the island of Madagascar.

Giraffe
The giraffe is the tallest land animal.

Giraffe and Baby
A mother and baby to color.

Gnu
The gnu is a fast-running, herding, grass-eater from eastern Africa. Also known as the wildebeest.

Grasshopper
Grasshoppers are insects that can hop, walk, and fly. There are about 10,000 different species of grasshoppers.

Hippopotamus
The hippopotamus is a large mammal that stays in the water a lot.

Hyena
A meat-eating mammal that hunts and scavenges prey.

Impala
A high-jumping, lightly-built antelope from southern Africa.

Jack Rabbit
Jack rabbits are hares; they have very long legs and long ears.

Kangaroo
Kangaroos hop and have pouches. Their babies are called joeys.

Leopard
Leopards are widely-distributed, spotted wild cats.

Lion
A group of lions is called a pride.

Meerkat
Meerkats (also known as suricates) are a type of mongoose that can stand upright.

Mole
Moles are almost-blind, burrowing mammals.

Mosquito
Mosquitos are flying insects that live in moist areas and can often carry diseases.

Mouse
Mice are small rodents with long, scaly tails.

Ostrich
The ostrich is the largest bird. It can't fly, but it runs very fast.

Quagga
The Quagga is a recently-extinct relative of the zebra.

Redbilled Oxpecker
Redbilled Oxpeckers are birds that perch on large mammals in southern Africa.

Rhea
The Common Rhea or Nandu is a large, flightless bird from South America.

Rhinoceros
The rhinoceros is a large, thick-skinned mammal with one or two horn-like spikes on its head.

Scorpion
A venomous arachnid with a large stinger on its tail.

Serval
A long-legged African wild cat.

Spectacled Caiman
The Spectacled Caiman is a common meat-eating reptile from fresh water habitats in South and Central America.

Tiger
Tigers are large, fierce cats that have stripes.

Wallaby
Wallabies are small to medium-sized kangaroos.

Warthog
The warthog is a wild pig from Africa.

White Rhinoceros
The White rhinoceros is a large rhino with gray skin and two horn-like spikes on its head.

Wildebeest
The wildebeest is a fast-running, herding, grass-eater from eastern Africa. Also known as the gnu.

Wombat
The wombat is a rare, burrowing marsupial from the islands of Australia and Tasmania.

Zebra
Zebras have black and white stripes.

Zorilla
The Zorilla is a skunk-like mammal that lives in Africa.

DESERT BIOME

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CLIMATE

The desert's climate is very hot and dry. Not many plants and animals can survive, but the ones that do are adapted to the torturous climate. As if the heat were not enough, at night it cools down to very cold temperatures. Deserts are usually located in areas near the equator. Most are just barren land with sand that strecthes for miles. The climate controls for this region are latitude because they are positioned near the equator. Another control is land & water because land heats up and cools down much faster than water making the climate more extreme.

There is a shortage of precipitation in the desert receiving less than 25 centimeters a year, receiving the least rain in the spring & summer. Although August is one of the months that receives the most rain with up to 1.3 centimeters of rain. The months of December to March is the time period when the desert receives the most precipitation. In May and June it does not receive any precipitation at all.

The temperatures for the desert fluctuate from day to night. The temperatures get so hot that they sometimes cause you to hallucinate. During winter the temperatures are lower than usual, in spring and summer it gets hotter, and in the fall it cools down a bit. The temperature controls are heating of the land because land heats faster than water, and geographic location because they are usually located by the equator.

Some of the largest deserts in the world:

Type of Desert	Name of Deserts	Location	Animals
Hot Desert	Great Sandy Desert, Great Victoria, Simpson, Gibson, Tanami	Australia	bilby, dingo, kangaroo, marsupial mole, quokka, rabbit-eared bandicoot, etc.
Hot Desert	Arabian Desert	Arabian Peninsula	dromedary, dung beetle, camel, civet, Egyptian vulture, flamingo, fox, gazelle, hare, hedgehog, Arabian horse, hyena, ibex, jackal, jerboa, lesser bustard, lizard, locust, oryx, peregrine falcon, porcupine, sand cobra, scorpion, skink, veiled chameleon, viper, etc.
Hot Desert	Chihuahuan	Mexico/S.W. USA	big free-tailed bat, coyote, diamondback rattlesnake, kangaroo rat, roadrunner, vampire bat, etc.
Hot Desert	Kalahari	S.W. Africa	gazelle, gerbil, ground squirrel, hyena, jackal, meerkat, springbok, etc.
Hot Desert	Mojave	S.W. USA	bighorn sheep, coyote, desert tortoise, jack rabbit, pupfish, sidewinder, etc.
Hot Desert	Monte	Argentina, South America	armadillo, cavy, jaguarundi, puma,tinamou, tuco-tuco, etc.
Hot Desert	Sahara	North Africa	addax antelope, barn owls, cape hare, dama deer, desert hedgehog, dorcas gazelle, fan-tailed raven, Fennec fox, gerbil, horned viper, jackal, jerboa, mouse, Nubian bustard, ostrich, sand fox, shrew, slender mongoose, spiny-tailed lizard, spotted hyena, etc.
Hot Desert	Sonoran	S.W. USA, Mexico	barn owl, big free-tailed bat, black widow spider, bobcat, chuckwallas, coati, collared peccary, desert iguana, desert tortoise, dragonfly, elf owl, gila monster, kangaroo rat, pack rat, Mexican gray wolf, mule deer, pupfish, rattlesnake, red-tailed hawk, roadrunner, scorpion, sidewinder, tarantula, turkey vulture, wild burros, etc.
Hot Desert	Thar	Indian, Pakistan	dromedary, great Indian bustard, Indian spiny-tailed lizard, jackal, sandgrouse, etc.
Coastal Desert	Atacama	Peru, Chile	llama, Peruvian fox, etc.
Cold and Hot Desert	Gobi	China, Mongolia	Bactrian camel, beetles, blue hill pigeon, desert wheatear, gazelle, gecko, Mongolian gerbil, jerboa, Gobi bear, jerboa, lizards, onager, Pallas cat, Pallas sandgrouse, Przewalski horse, short-toed larks, snow leopard, wild mountain sheep, wolf, etc.
Cold and Hot Desert	Iranian	Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan	monitor lizard, onager, oryx, scorpion, etc.
Cold and Hot Desert	Namib	S. W. Africa	fringe-toed lizard, golden mole, jackal, sidewinder, viper, web-footed gecko, etc.
Cold and Hot Desert	Takla Makan	W. China	Bactrian camel, jerboa, long-eared hedgehog, gazelle, etc.
Cold Desert	Patagonian	Argentina, South America	guanaco, lesser rhea, mara, pygmy armadillo, tuco-tuco, Patagonian weasel, foxes, puma, hawks, eagles, etc.
Cold Desert	Turkestan	Middle East	Asian tortoise, gazelle, gerbil, saiga antelope, etc.
Cold Desert	Antarctic Desert	Antarctica	Brown skua, penguins, mites, springtails, worms, etc.
Semi-arid Desert	Great Basin	USA	bighorn sheep, jack rabbit, pocket mouse, pronghorn antelope, sage thrasher, etc.

PLANTS

In the desert you will find many plants. Those plants have adapted to the desert by holding in a lot of water for a long time. The most common desert plant is the cactus. Most people think of this plant when they think of the desert. There are other types of plants, such as peyote. It is a small plant that is really low to the ground. Indians used to smoke peyote to get a lot of ideas. Peyote is found in the Chihuahuan desert in North America. Another kind of plant is the fishhook cactus. It is really prickly and the needles are shaped just like the name, fishhook. Kind of clever, eh? It is found in the Sonoran desert. The hedgehog cactus is small and has really sharp needles. It doesn't have a lot of details, it is just a little prickly thing. I wouldn't step on it with no shoes on though. It is found in the great basin.

ANIMALS

Animals in the desert must survive in a harsh environment. Intense heat, searing sun, and lack of water are just a few of the challenges facing desert animals.

Adaptations are numerous in the desert. Some animals rely on bird seeds for water (seeds can contain up to 50% water). Spadefoot toads spend nine months of every year underground. Many animals in the desert, such as a rettlesnake, kangaroo rat, and kit foxes, spend most of the day underground. These animals come out at night to eat and hunt. Creatures that come out at night to eat and hunt are called nocturnal.

The most common animal of the desert is the jackrabbit. The jackrabbit has the adaptation of large ears that radiate heat so it doesn't get to hot. It has strong hind legs that enable it to jump away from its predators. They usually eat small desert plants or whatever they can find on the desert floor.

The largest animal of the desert is the camel. Camels have the ability to store large amounts of water for a long time enabling it to survive in the harsh, dry desert. Camels are the main transportation of the desert dwellers. They have a transparent eyelid that keeps sand out of their eyes.

Ant
Ants are social insects found worldwide in almost every environment.

Antelope
Antelopes are graceful mammals with beautiful horns.

Arabian Camel
The Arabian Camel is the one-humped camel (it is also known as the dromedary).

Arabian Horse
Arabian Horses are a distinctive and elegant breed of riding horses that were bred by Bedouins thousands of years ago.

Armadillo
The armadillo is a small, burrowing, armored mammal.

Bactrian Camel
Bactrian Camels are two-humped camels from deserts and steppes of Asia.

Bandicoot
Bandicoots are marsupials with pointy snouts.

Bat
Bats are the only flying mammal.

Bighorn Sheep
The bighorn sheep is a wild brown sheep from mountains and deserts of North America.

Bilby
The bilby (also known as the rabbit-eared bandicoot) is a small marsupial with long ears.

Black Widow Spider
A very poisonous spider with a distinctive red hourglass marking.

Blue-tongued Skink
An Australian lizard with a long, blue tongue.

Boa Constrictor
A large constricting snake from South and Central America.

Bobcat
A fierce, short-tailed wild cat from North America.

California Quail
The California Quail (also known as the Valley Quail) is a plump bird with a forward-facing head plume.

Camel
Camels are large mammals that live in dry areas.

Collared Peccary
A pig-like mammal, also known as the javelina, from deserts and chaparrals of North and Central America.

Coyote
Coyotes are meat-eaters related to wolves.

Deer
The deer is a shy, fast-moving plant-eater.

Desert Tortoise
A tortoise from southwestern North America.

Dingo
The dingo is a wild dog from Australia.

Donkey
Donkeys are hoofed mammals adapted to desert life.

Dragonfly
The dragonfly is a flying insect with a long abdomen.

Dromedary
The dromedary is the one-humped camel (also known as the Arabian Camel).

Eagle
The eagle is a large bird of prey.

Fennec Fox
The Fennec fox is a small, desert fox with very large ears; it lives in the Sahara and in northern Saudi Arabia.

Flamingo
The flamingo is a long-legged bird that eats crustaceans. Flamingos live in a variety of habitats, including warm coastal areas, high, snowy mountains, and near alkali lakes in deserts.

Fox
The fox is a meat-eating mammal with a long, bushy tail.

Gazelle
Gazelles live in herds in Africa.

Gecko
Geckos are the only lizards that make noise. Many geckos live in desert.

Gerbil
The gerbil is a small, long-tailed rodent that is native to dry, sandy areas of Africa and Asia.

Gila Monster
A venomous lizard from deserts of southwestern North America.

Goat
Goats are sure-footed, hoofed mammals.

Gray Wolf
Gray wolves are carnivores that live in packs and howl.

Great Horned Owl
A large bird of prey from North and South America.

Hedgehog
Hedgehogs are small mammals that can roll into a prickly ball.

Iguana
Iguanas are plant-eating lizards.

Jack Rabbit
Jack rabbits are hares; they have very long legs and long ears.

Javelina
A pig-like mammal, also known as the collared peccary, from deserts and chaparrals of North and Central America.

Jerboa
The jerboa is a small, long-tailed rodent that hops.

Kangaroo
Kangaroos hop and have pouches. Their babies are called joeys.

Kangaroo Rat
A small rodent from North America.

Llama
Llama are woolly mammals from South America.

Mongoose
Mongooses are sleek, meat-eating mammals.

Mouse
Mice are small rodents with long, scaly tails.

Nabarlek
A small wallaby from northern Australia.

North American Porcupine
The North American Porcupine is a mammals that has protective, needle-like quills on its body.

Oryx
Oryx are long-horned antelopes from dry areas in Africa.

Ostrich
The ostrich is the largest bird. It can't fly, but it runs very fast.

Owl
Owls are nocturnal hunters with eyes that face forwards.

Peregrine Falcon
The fastest flyers, who prey upon other birds.

Pika
Pikas are small, furry mammals who stockpile food for winter.

Porcupine
Porcupines are mammals with protective, needle-like quills on their body.

Pronghorn
Pronghorns are the fastest moving mammals in North America. The Sonoran Pronghorn lives in semi-desert areas.

Puma
A long-tailed wild cat with no spots. It is also known as the catamount, panther, mountain lion, and cougar.

Pupfish
A small fish from desert waters of southwestern North America.

Quokka
The Quokka is a marsupial from Australia, a type of wallaby.

Rabbit
A fast-moving mammal with long ears.

Rabbit-eared Bandicoot
Also known as the bilby, this small Australian marsupial has long ears.

Rattlesnake
Rattlesnakes are venomous snakes that have a rattle at the end of the tail.

Red Fox
The Red Fox is a meat-eating mammal with a long, bushy tail.

Red Kangaroo
Red Kangaroos are large roos from Australia.

Red-Tailed Hawk
The Red-Tailed Hawk is a bird of prey, a raptor from North America.

Roadrunner
Also known as the Ground Cuckoo, this bird is a fast runner that rarely flies.

Scorpion
A venomous arachnid with a large stinger on its tail. Found worldwide except in Antarctica.

Serval
A long-legged African wild cat.

Sheep
Sheep are mammals with thick, furry fur and hoofed feet.

Shrew
Shrews are tiny mammals that are quite ferocious.

Snow Leopard
Snow Leopards are rare, pale leopards from the snowy central mountains of Asia.

Spider
Spiders have eight legs.

Suricate
Suricates (also known as meerkats) are a type of mongoose that can stand upright.

Tarantula
A tarantula is a large, hairy spider.

Valley Quail
The Valley Quail (also known as the California Quail) is a plump bird with a forward-facing head plume.

Vampire Bat
Vampire bats are the only bats that drink blood.

Veiled Chameleon
A chameleon with a helmet-like casque on its head.

GRASSLAND BIOME

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About one fifth of the Earth's land once had a cover of grass. Any more, the land would become a forest. Any less, the land would become a desert. Grasslands are often the transition from desert to forest. Near the forests where rainfall is abundant, trees grow intermixed with tall grasses. Trees are limited to river and stream basins. What is most striking about the grassland is how open and continuous the area is. It seems as though there is an endless ocean of grass. As the grasslands stretch away from the forests, the rain decreases and soil conditions change. Then come stretches of treeless tall grass. In semiarid regions near deserts grow short, or bunch grasses.

A grassland is a grassy, windy, partly-dry biome, a sea of grass. In many areas, grasslands separate forests from deserts. Deep-rooted grasses dominate the flora in a grassland; there are very few trees and shrubs in a grassland, less than one tree per acre. There are many different words for grassland environments around the world, including savannas, pampas, campos, plains, steppes, prairies and veldts.

There are two types of grasslands, including:

Tropical grassland - hot all year with wet seasons that bring torrential rains. Located between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn, sometimes called savannas.
Temperate grasslands - hot summers and cold winters. The evaporation rate is high, so little rain makes it into the rich soil. Located north of the Tropic of Cancer and south of the Tropic of Capricorn.

Animal Adaptations: The animals that live in grasslands have adapted to dry, windy conditions. There are grazing animals (that eat the grass), burrowing animals, and their predators; insects are abundant. A moderate of level species diversity exists on a grassland.

Where are Grasslands? Grasslands are located in North America's interior (called prairies), in southeastern South America (Argentina's pampas and the campos of Uruguay and Brazil), in Eurasia (the Eurasian steppe in Mongolia and parts of the former Soviet Union), in Africa (the semi-arid steppes of the Sahel of north-central Africa and the wetter grasslands, veldts, of East Africa and Madagascar), and in Australia and New Zealand (called rangelands).

Vegetation

There is mainly grass in the grassland. There are few trees except along streams and where there are cracks deep in the soil. There are some palm trees in savannahs, another type of grassland. There are tall grass praries and short grass praries. The tall grass praries get more water and that is why the grass is taller.

Besides grasses and trees there are also flowering perennials. The flowers arrive when the season's rainy weather kicks in. Some examples of the flowers that grow in the grasslands are milkweeds, goldenrods, asters, the blazing star, sweet coneflower, and purple coneflower. These plants survive cold winters and fires through underground storage organs and thick stem bases.

Shrubs are not common in the grassland. Poison ivy is found at the edge of the prairie. Big bluestem grass is the tallest grass found on tall grass prairies and it can reach a height of 11 feet! Another name for big bluestem is turkeyfeet because of the shape of the seedheads.

Climate

The climate in the grassland is warm and dry which is pretty temperate. In a grassland biome, between 25 and 75 cm of rainfall yearly. The grassland occurs in the interior of the continents and rainshadows. The grassland has a very continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. There is more precipitation in the summer time then there is in the winter. The temperature is a lot warmer in the summer than in the winter. The temperature control is heating of land and the climate control is latitude because it is near the equator. The heating of land is when land heats quickly and land cools down quickly.

Animals

There are many types of animals in the grasslands. Animals range from bison to zebras. Some adaptations that the animals of the grassland are being able to run away for hungry predators then hiding in a safe place were no one can get them. Also animals in the grassland are usually more active in the rainy season.

Aardvark Aardvarks are large mammals that eat ants.	African Elephant The African Elephant is the largest land animal.	African Wild Cat African Wild Cats are fierce, solitary hunters.	Anteater Anteaters are mammals with very long snouts from South and Central America.
Antelope Antelopes are graceful mammals with beautiful horns.	Ant Ants are social insects.	Asian Elephant The Asian Elephant is an endangered species.	Baboon The baboon is a large monkey with a long snout and large cheek pouches.
Bactrian Camel Bactrian Camels are two-humped camels from deserts and steppes of Asia.	Badger The badger is a nocturnal mammal with a black-and-white striped face.	Bison The American Buffalo (which is actually a Bison) is the heaviest land animal in North America.	Black-Footed Ferret The Black-Footed Ferret is an endangered type of ferret from North America.
Blue-tongued Skink An Australian lizard with a long, blue tongue.	Boa Constrictor A large constricting snake from South and Central America.	Bobcat A fierce, short-tailed wild cat from North America.	Bull Snake Also known as the gopher snake and the pine snake, this hissing constrictor lives in North America.
Camel Camels are large mammals that live in dry areas of the Middle East.	Cape Hunting Dog The Cape Hunting Dog hunts in packs in Africa.	CHEETAH The cheetah is the fastest land animal. Or go to a simple cheetah coloring printout (just the image).	Coati (Coatimundi) Coatimundi (also called coati) are long-nosed, long-tailed mammals from the Americas.
Coyote Coyotes are meat-eaters related to wolves.	Coypu Coypus (also called nutrias) are semi-aquatic rodents that are originally from South America.	Cricket Crickets are jumping insects.
Deer The deer is a shy, fast-moving plant-eater.	Dhole The dhole is a wild dog from Asia.	Dingo The dingo is a wild dog from Australia.
Donkey Donkeys are hoofed mammals adapted to environments with little water.	Dragonfly The dragonfly is a flying insect with a long abdomen.	Earthworm An earthworm is a little animal with a long, soft body and no legs. They are found worldwide
Emu The emu is a large Australian bird that cannot fly.	Fox The fox is a meat-eating mammal with a long, bushy tail.	Gecko Geckos are the only lizards that make noise. Some geckos live in grasslands.
Giraffe The giraffe is the tallest land animal; it is found in Africa.	Giraffe and Baby A mother and baby to color.	Gopher Snake Also known as the bull snake and the pine snake, this hissing constrictor lives in North America.
Gnu The gnu is a fast-running, herding, grass-eater from eastern Africa. It is also known as the wildebeest.	Goat Goats are sure-footed, hoofed mammals.	Golden Eagle Golden Eagles are large birds of prey.	Grasshopper Grasshoppers are insects that can hop, walk, and fly. There are about 10,000 different species of grasshoppers worldwide.
Gray Wolf Gray wolves are carnivores that live in packs and howl.	Great Horned Owl A large bird of prey from North and South America.	Hippopotamus The hippopotamus is a large African mammal that stays in the water a lot.	Hyena A meat-eating mammal that hunts and scavenges prey.

Impala A high-jumping, lightly-built antelope from southern Africa.	Jack Rabbit Jack rabbits are hares; they have very long legs and long ears.	Jaguar The jaguar is a large, spotted wild cat from South and Central America.	Kakapo A large, flightless, nocturnal, solitary parrot from New Zealand.
Kangaroo Kangaroos hop and have pouches. Their babies are called joeys.	Leopard Leopards are widely-distributed, spotted wild cats.	Lion A group of lions is called a pride.	Llama Llama are woolly mammals from South America.

DECIDUOUS FOREST BIOME

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Deciduous biomes are located primarily in the eastern half of the United States, Canada, Europe, parts of Russia, China, and Japan.

Climate

The average temperature of the forest is about 50 degrees F. The average amount of rainfall in the forest is 30 to 60 inches a year. As the seasons change, so do the colors of the leaves of the deciduous. During the winter months water is generally not available to keep the leaves of some plants alive. Therefore, the leaves of some plants fall off and grow back in the spring. Those plants, like evergreens, keep their leaves during the winter have special adaptations to stay alive. You can learn more about the vegetation of deciduous biomes.

Animals

Precipitation in the temperate deciduous forest is spread throughout the year. However, during the winter months it is usually frozen and unavailable to animals. Animals living within this biome must adjust to cold winters and hot summers. Leaves generally fall off in the fall, leaving animals with less cover to hide themselves from predators. Also in the deciduous forests are such animals as

Black Bear

Fox

Brown Bear

Other animals found in Temperate Deciduous Forest

Ant
Ants are social insects.

Bald Eagle
The bald eagle is a large bird of prey. It is the symbol of the USA.

Beaver
The beaver is a large rodent that builds dams and dens.

Black Bear
A large, black to brown bear.

Brown Bear
The Brown Bear is a large bear with a muscular hump on its shoulders.

Cardinal
The cardinal is a brilliant red bird with a short, wide bill.

Collared Peccary
A pig-like mammal, also known as the javelina, from deserts, chaparrals and forests of North and Central America.

Deer
The deer is a shy, fast-moving plant-eater.

Dhole
The dhole is a wild dog from Asia.

Earthworm
An earthworm is a little animal with a long, soft body and no legs.

Fox
The fox is a meat-eating mammal with a long, bushy tail.

Frog
Tadpoles grow up to be frogs.

Mallard Duck
The Mallard is a common wild duck that is the ancestor of most domestic ducks.

Muskrat
Muskrats are rodents that often build dome-shaped houses.

Newt
Newts are small, brightly-colored salamanders.

Nightingale
A small songird that sings beautiful, complex songs, often at night.

Opossum
The Virginia opossum is the only marsupial in North America. Over 64 species of opossum are found in South America.

Porcupine
Porcupines are mammals with protective, needle-like quills on their body.

Rabbit
A fast-moving mammal with long ears.

Raccoon
The raccoon is a mammal with mask-like markings on its face and a ringed tail.

Red Fox
The Red Fox is a meat-eating mammal with a long, bushy tail.

Red-Tailed Hawk
The Red-Tailed Hawk is a bird of prey, a raptor from North America.

Scorpion
A venomous arachnid with a large stinger on its tail.

Skunk
Skunks are black and white mammals that can produce a terrible odor.

Squirrel
Squirrels are rodents. They live in a variety of biomes, including the taiga.

Turkey
Turkeys are large birds that nest on the ground.

Weasel
A carnivorous mammal that has a long, slender body and short legs.

White-Tailed Deer
The white-tailed deer is a shy, fast-moving plant-eater.

Vegetation

In the deciduous forest there are many flowers like the passion berry and the blue lily. There are many other flowers but those are some of the main ones.

The Deciduous forest does not have much vegetation but there are many trees that contain outrageous amounts of flowers. Animals need these trees because they provide shelter and some use them for food and even water from the leaves. The trees adapt to this forest by having thick bark barriers on the trees to keep the animals out and the trees from dying.