OZONE AND THE HUMAN HEALTH

Ozone's unique physical properties allow the ozone layer to act as our planet's sunscreen, providing an invisible filter to help protect all life forms from the Sun's damaging ultraviolet (UV) rays. Most incoming UV radiation is absorbed by ozone and prevented from reaching the Earth's surface. Without the protective effect of ozone, life on Earth would not have evolved the way it has.

The ozone layer protects us from the harmful effects of certain wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. The danger to humans from UV radiation comes mainly from the UV-B range of the spectrum, although UV-A poses some risk if exposure is long enough. UV radiation is harmful to the eyes, can damage the immune system and over time can lead to the development of skin cancers. If ozone in the stratosphere is destroyed, more UV radiation will reach the Earth's surface, and incidences of these health effects will increase.

OZONE AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

UV radiation from the Sun can benefit health, generating vitamin D production in the skin. The required amount of radiation is, however, quite small. In summer, an exposure of 15 minutes to the hands and face is adequate. Vitamin D is also found in food. A normal diet will provide enough vitamin D for people even in winter. In the treatment of some skin diseases such as psoriasis, UV radiation is being effectively exploited. Under a doctor's control, the benefit from the treatment is much greater than any consequential increase in skin cancer risk.

However, over exposure to UV radiation can impair the body's ability to fight off disease, in addition to causing cancer and a range of eye disorders. UV suppresses the immune system, irrespective of skin colour, making it easier for tumours to take hold and spread.

UV radiation suppresses allergic reactions of the skin and affects the immune system. When skin has been over-exposed to UV radiation, the activity of antibody-producing white blood cells is suppressed. These effects are not restricted to the part of skin actually subject to exposure, but may also occur on shielded parts of skin and throughout the whole immune system. As a result, the body fails to produce the antigens required for defence against a variety of diseases. This could have serious consequences, including a much-diminished effectiveness of vaccinations.

At the present time, the significance of a weakening of the immune system caused by UV radiation is not properly understood. The weakening can possibly act to promote the development of skin cancers and worsen infectious diseases stemming from bacteria, viruses and tropical parasites. It may also activate viruses already present on the skin, such as herpes, and lead to an increase in diseases like measles, malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy and fungal infections, all of which have a stage involving the skin. People carrying the herpes virus should protect their faces against strong sunlight.

Scientific research suggests that sunburn can alter the distribution and function of disease-fighting white blood cells in humans for up to 24 hours after exposure to the Sun. In addition, repeated exposure to UV radiation may cause more long-lasting damage to the body's immune system. Whilst little research has been conducted on the effects of decreasing stratospheric ozone on human immunity, it is likely that continued destruction of the ozone layer will lead to further health complications, in addition to skin cancers and eye disorders, as a result of the suppression of our ability to fight off disease.

OZONE AND THE GLOBAL CLIMATE

Increases in solar UV radiation (click this) as a result of ozone depletion could affect terrestrial and aquatic biogeochemical cycles, thereby altering both sources and removal sinks of greenhouse gases, for example carbon dioxide, and possibly other trace gases including man-made pollutants. Likely effects of this may include an increase in air pollution in urban centres, and acid rain in rural areas.

Whilst increases of UV radiation may affect the production and removal of carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse gas, ozone depletion itself can influence the global climate. Ozone is also a greenhouse gas, and as well as filtering out the incoming UV radiation from the Sun, can trap much of the infrared (IR) heat trying to escape the Earth to space. If stratospheric ozone is destroyed, ozone’s contribution to the greenhouse effect is reduced. This could offset some of the global warming due to man-made emissions of carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Ironically, as the ozone layer gradually repairs itself during the 21^st century, this cooling potential will be lost. More significantly, the replacement chemicals to CFCs, the HCFCs, which themselves do little harm to the ozone layer, are very strong greenhouse gases, and are further contributing to the potential problem of global warming.

CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS (CFCs)

Chlorofluorocarbons or CFCs (also known as Freon) are non-toxic, non-flammable and non-carcinogenic. They contain fluorine atoms, carbon atoms and chlorine atoms. The 5 main CFCs include CFC-11 (trichlorofluoromethane - CFCl₃), CFC-12 (dichloro-difluoromethane - CF₂Cl₂), CFC-113 (trichloro-trifluoroethane - C₂F₃Cl₃), CFC-114 (dichloro-tetrfluoroethane - C₂F₄Cl₂), and CFC-115 (chloropentafluoroethane - C₂F₅Cl).

CFCs are widely used as coolants in refrigeration and air conditioners, as solvents in cleaners, particularly for electronic circuit boards, as a blowing agents in the production of foam (for example fire extinguishers), and as propellants in aerosols. Indeed, much of the modern lifestyle of the second half of the 20^th century had been made possible by the use of CFCs.

Man-made CFCs however, are the main cause of stratospheric ozone depletion. CFCs have a lifetime in the atmosphere of about 20 to 100 years, and consequently one free chlorine atom from a CFC molecule can do a lot of damage, destroying ozone molecules for a long time. Although emissions of CFCs around the developed world have largely ceased due to international control agreements, the damage to the stratospheric ozone layer will continue well into the 21^st century.

Before the Montreal Protocol, CFCs were used in a variety of industrial and commercial appliances.

DOING OUR BIT FOR THE OZONE LAYER

There are a number of steps that we can all take both as individuals and as groups to protect the Earth's ozone layer. We have all been part of the ozone depletion problem, through the use of chemicals in everyday products. However, we can all be part of the solution.

Following the Montreal Protocol most ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs) have or are being phased out of use in most target applications such as aerosols, refrigeration and air conditioning. However, consumer products bought prior to international agreements may still be in use in our homes and offices and cannot easily be replaced. Large appliances, such as refrigerators, have long lifetimes and early replacement would entail great cost. Proper care and maintenance of equipment to ensure that the CFCs they contain are never released to the atmosphere should be applied. Remember that a single CFC molecule can destroy 100,000 ozone molecules.

In addition, if purchasing fire extinguishers try to avoid any that contain halons, which have bromine in them. Purchase carbon dioxide, water, or dry chemical extinguishers instead. Finally, although foam packaging is CFC-free, some products contain HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorcarbons), which while far less damaging to the ozone layer, could contribute substantially to global warming. Avoid those that do. Use and re-use non-disposable packaging.

Introduction to Ozone Depletion

Ozone is both beneficial and harmful to us. Near the ground, ozone forming as a result of chemical reactions involving traffic pollution and sunlight may cause a number of respiratory problems, particularly for young children. However, high up in the atmosphere in a region known as the stratosphere, ozone filters out incoming radiation from the Sun in the cell-damaging ultraviolet (UV) part of the spectrum. Without this ozone layer, life on earth would not have evolved in the way it has.

Concentrations of ozone in the stratosphere fluctuate naturally in response to variations in weather conditions and amounts of energy being released from the Sun, and to major volcanic eruptions. Nevertheless, during the 1970s it was realised that man-made emissions of CFCs and other chemicals used in refrigeration, aerosols and cleansing agents may cause a significant destruction of ozone in the stratosphere, thereby letting through more of the harmful ultraviolet radiation. Then in 1985 evidence of a large "ozone hole" was discovered above the continent of Antarctica during the springtime. This has reappeared annually, generally growing larger and deeper each year. More recently, fears have emerged about significant ozone depletion over the Arctic, closer to the more populous regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

In response to this and additional fears about more widespread global ozone depletion, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was implemented in 1987. This legally binding international treaty called for participating developed nations to reduce the use of CFCs and other ozone depleting substances. In 1990 and again in 1992, subsequent Amendments to the Protocol brought forward the phase out date for CFCs for developed countries to 1995.

Protecting the ozone layer is essential. Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun can cause a variety of health problems in humans, including skin cancers, eye cataracts and a reduction in the body's immunity to disease. Furthermore, ultraviolet radiation can be damaging to microscopic life in the surface oceans which forms the basis of the world’s marine food chain, certain varieties of crops including rice and soya, and polymers used in paints and clothing. A loss of ozone in the stratosphere may even affect the global climate.

International agreements and other legislation have gone a long way to safeguarding this life-supporting shield. Nevertheless, for there to be real and long-lasting success, everyone must become part of the solution. Individual efforts taken together can be powerful forces for environmental change. There are a number of things that we, as individuals, can do to both protect the ozone layer. These include proper disposal of old refrigerators, the use of halon-free fire extinguishers and the recycling of foam and other non-disposable packaging. Finally, we should all be aware that whilst emissions of ozone depleters are now being controlled, the ozone layer is not likely to fully repair itself for several decades. Consequently, we should take precautions when exposing ourselves to the Sun.


Causes of Ozone Depletion

Ozone depletion occurs when the natural balance between the production and destruction of stratospheric ozone is tipped in favour of destruction. Although natural phenomena can cause temporary ozone loss, chlorine and bromine released from man-made compounds such as CFCs are now accepted as the main cause of this depletion.

It was first suggested by Drs. M. Molina and S. Rowland in 1974 that a man-made group of compounds known as the chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were likely to be the main source of ozone depletion. However, this idea was not taken seriously until the discovery of the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1985 by the British Antarctic Survey.

Chlorofluorocarbons are not "washed" back to Earth by rain or destroyed in reactions with other chemicals. They simply do not break down in the lower atmosphere and they can remain in the atmosphere from 20 to 120 years or more. As a consequence of their relative stability, CFCs are instead transported into the stratosphere where they are eventually broken down by ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun, releasing free chlorine. The chlorine becomes actively involved in the process of destruction of ozone. The net result is that two molecules of ozone are replaced by three of molecular oxygen, leaving the chlorine free to repeat the process:

Cl + O3 ® ClO + O2

ClO + O ® Cl + O2

Ozone is converted to oxygen, leaving the chlorine atom free to repeat the process up to 100,000 times, resulting in a reduced level of ozone. Bromine compounds, or halons, can also destroy stratospheric ozone. Compounds containing chlorine and bromine from man-made compounds are known as industrial halocarbons.

Emissions of CFCs have accounted for roughly 80% of total stratospheric ozone depletion. Thankfully, the developed world has phased out the use of CFCs in response to international agreements to protect the ozone layer. However, because CFCs remain in the atmosphere so long, the ozone layer will not fully repair itself until at least the middle of the 21st century. Naturally occurring chlorine has the same effect on the ozone layer, but has a shorter life span in the atmosphere.


FREON FACTS:

You may have heard much talk about Freon and new refrigerants recently. But besides knowing that it is the substance used to produce cold in your refrigerator, many of its characteristics usually remain a mystery to most.

Some of the more common misconceptions are, that eventually, more Freon needs to be added to the refrigerator, odors in the refrigerator are caused by a leak of this gas, and if it does leak inside the cabinet the food stored there is now contaminated. Surprizingly, none of these are true.

Will my refrigerator ever need to be topped up?

No, unlike automobile air conditioners, refrigerators should never need to be topped up. They never need any more refrigerant than they came with from the factory, unless they develop a hole. Holes can be a result of mechanical damage, or from a defect that shows up later in the refrigerator's life because of unanticipated design faults in the refrigerator. Small holes can exist right from when the refrigerator was new and take from one to six years to show their symptoms. In the past, these refrigerators were merely topped up by technicians. The refrigerator could work normally, while leaking out refrigerant gradually. Nowadays however, topping up is no longer an acceptable practice. The hole must be found and repaired, or the refrigerant must be immediately removed before any more Freon escapes.

I seem to always have a gassy smell in my refrigerator. Does this mean it has a small leak?

No, the only time odor is caused by the substances in the hermetic system, is during a large hole situation. In this case, all the refrigerant leaks out and air enters the system. If the compressor is then allowed to stay running, a few hours or perhaps overnight, a pungent oily odor will occur.

What happens is that the electric motor of the compressor is not designed to cut itself out at temperatures above which it will burn the varnish off its windings in an oxygen atmosphere. The mineral based oil that is present in the hermetic system with the refrigerant also darkens and develops an odor when subjected to high heat and oxygen.

So by the time a hermetic system gives off this kind of odor, your refrigerator would no longer be functioning, not even a little bit. The gassy smell you are noticing is coming from a different source.

In my existing refrigerator, can I have the Freon removed and replaced with new ozone friendly refrigerants?

Yes, currently there are many drop-in replacements that can be substituted in either R12 systems or 134a systems. The most common ones presently used are SP34e and R414. There are also two blended refrigerants R406 and R409 that can be used as direct replacements. The new refrigerants will work in your present refrigerator but can't be mixed with other refrigerants. At this time many technicians are using cross compatible refrigerants such as SP34e and R414 but if enough can be recovered and if your system is still clean and none has escaped or been contaminated by air or moisture, the original R12 or 134a can be put back in if the technician has a bit more to make up the difference in what could be recovered. (no recovery can be 100%). If the company has the right equipment they can remove your existing refrigerant, filter it, then return it into your system after a repair, such as a compressor replacement, is complete. At this time new R12 is no longer available and all new refrigerators use 134a.

134a can't be used in an R12 system . This is because the oil used with 134a is incompatible with the oil used in R12 systems. One of the properties of the oil in a vapor compression system is that it atomizes within the refrigerant and circulates with it. Because of the new cross compatible refrigerants, retrofitting an existing system no matter which refrigerant it used is quite a simple matter.

Is Freon or any of the new replacement gasses flammable or explosive?

Freon or 134a is not, but R406, in certain very remote circumstances, could be. R406 is a blended gas that is made from three separate substances HCFC-22=55%, HCFC-142b=41%, and Isobutane=4%. The small portion of Isobutane can cause this replacement to be weakly flammable during leakage. Because of this and the fact also that HCFC-142b has one of the highest ODP's of the HCFCs, a different blend, R409 is becoming more favorable. It is made of the three substances HCFC-22=60% , HCFC-124=25% , and HCFC- 142b=15% . Notice HCFC-142b is a component of R409 but only 15% and it uses no Isobutane.

Is Freon or any of the new replacement gasses toxic?

No, in fact until recently Freon was, and still is in some instances, used to propel medicine directly into the lungs of asthma sufferers. In 1931 the inventor of Freon, Thomas Midgley made a public demonstration that it was harmless by filling his lungs with the gas then blowing out a candle.

If Freon is so non toxic, why is it being banned?

The current scientific theory states that it is because of Freon's eventual effect on the ozone, high up in the earth's atmosphere. The family of Freon type gasses work their way higher and higher into the atmosphere due to kinetic reaction with the other molecules in the air. When released to the atmosphere Freon gradually rises up, even higher then the ozone layer. Once it is higher than the ozone layer it is no longer protected from ultra violet light. Ultraviolet light acts on Freon by breaking it down to its original components. One of these components is chlorine. The liberated chlorine then starts falling back down through the ozone layer changing ozone molecules back to oxygen. Worse yet, what happens on this molecular level is that just one chlorine molecule can destroy millions of ozone molecules on it's way through.

Why is ozone necessary in our atmosphere?

Ozone, in chemical notation as O3, is merely oxygen with three molecules instead of two. It acts like a filter and prevents harmful infrared and ultraviolet rays from entering the lower atmosphere. This is the spectrum of light that is harmful to life on earth. What happens actually is this light causes DNA. strands, present in all living cells, to tangle. In larger organisms, such as a human being, the effect can cause cancer. The organisms most vulnerable to these harmful rays would be the photo plankton that grow on the surface of our oceans. If they were to be destroyed, the entire food chain would be disrupted. This would catastrophically affect all life as we know it. The entire ecosystem could die, and of course we would go with it.

So releasing Freon into our atmosphere has very serious consequences, so serious that the scientists have set limits on virgin production of tapering off to zero. There are also laws being established to make it a criminal offense for anyone who releases, or causes to be released, any ozone depleting substance including Freon. This is why you should never tamper with your hermetic system. Only professional technicians have the appropriate qualifications and equipment to do this work.

Does this mean I'll eventually have to get rid of my refrigerator because it uses Freon?

At this point the chances of that happening are highly unlikely. Refrigerators use very little Freon usually between 4 and 8 ounces. The chance of them starting to leak during normal operating conditions is quite slight. And unlike an automobile's air conditioner, they never need to be recharged and, for that matter, very seldom get into collisions. :>)

The meaning of the term hermetic means the system is sealed to the atmosphere. On a typical refrigerator compressor , its electric motor runs right in the Freon gas, the only connection to the outside is the three electrical terminals. Another factor in your refrigerator's favor is that there are just so many of them. The new blended drop in replacements for R12, R406 and R409 will currently be available until the year 2020.

How should I get rid of an unwanted refrigerator or freezer?

If you are planning to discard any refrigerating appliance that contains Freon, you should have a qualified technician remove and recycle the Freon. Check on this first though, some landfill sites in larger cities are now providing this service.

There may be an easier way though. If you live in a larger center, chances are there are companies that will come to your home free of charge, or pay you a nominal sum to take your used appliance for parts or resale. Failing this, you could haul it into a larger center and drop it off at an appliance recycling or repair shop on your next shopping trip. Be sure to phone ahead and make arrangements with them first.

Is it environmentally prudent to repair my Freon type refrigerator?

Yes, in fact continuing to use it at this time instead of discarding it and buying a new one, is still kinder to the environment, however this is only my opinion. Of course stores selling new refrigerators may have a different one.

Manufacturers are now finally having to comply with new regulations regarding energy consumption. This could have been done a long time ago but there was no motive. Because of this redesigning though, many "bugs" are present that have to be worked out and sometimes the consumer ends up paying for them. On the large scale across the entire nation, the difference in energy consumption is significant, but on an individual basis it likely won't make that much difference to your power bill if you have a 70's or a 90's design.

What would be nice to see, is regulations on new appliances regarding durability and longevity.

Ozone Hole

In some of the popular news media, as well as in many books, the term "ozone hole" has and often still is used far too loosely. Frequently, the term is employed to describe any episode of ozone depletion, no matter how minor. Unfortunately, this sloppy language trivialises the problem and blurs the important scientific distinction between the massive ozone losses in polar regions and the much smaller, but nonetheless significant, ozone losses in other parts of the world.

Technically, the term "ozone hole" should be applied to regions where stratospheric ozone depletion is so severe that levels fall below 200 Dobson Units (D.U.), the traditional measure of stratospheric ozone. Normal ozone concentration is about 300 to 350 D.U. Such ozone loss now occurs every springtime above Antarctica, and to a lesser extent the Arctic, where special meteorological conditions and very low air temperatures accelerate and enhance the destruction of ozone loss by man-made ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs).

THE IMPACT OF GLOBAL WARMING IN ASIA

The Asian region spans polar, temperate, and tropical climates and is home to over 3 billion people. As the climate warms, many mountain glaciers may disappear, permafrost will thaw, and the northern forests are likely to shift further north. Rapid population growth and development in countries like China and India will put additional pressures on natural ecosystems and will lead to a rapid rise in the release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere unless steps are taken to curtail emissions.

1. Llasa, Tibet -- Warmest June on record, 1998. Temperatures hovered above 77�F for 23 days.

2. Garhwal Himalayas, India -- Glacial retreat at record pace. The Dokriani Barnak Glacier retreated 66 ft (20.1 m) in 1998 despite a severe winter. The Gangorti Glacier is retreating 98 ft (30 m) per year. At this rate scientists predict the loss of all central and eastern Himalayan glaciers by 2035.

3. Tien Shan Mountains, China -- Glacial ice reduced by one quarter in the past 40 years.

4. Southern India - Heat wave, May 2002. In the state of Andhra Pradesh temperatures rose to 120�F, resulting in the highest one-week death toll on record. This heat wave came in the context of a long-term warming trend in Asia in general. India, including southern India, has experienced a warming trend at a rate of 1�F (0.6�C) per century.

5. Nepal - High rate of temperature rise. Since the mid-1970s the average air temperature measured at 49 stations has risen by 1.8�F (1�C), with high elevation sites warming the most. This is twice as fast as the 1�F (0.6�C) average warming for the mid-latitudinal Northern Hemisphere (24 to 40�N) over the same time period, and illustrates the high sensitivity of mountain regions to climate change.

6. Taiwan - Average temperature increase. The average temperature for the island has risen 1.8-2.5�F (1-1.4�C) in the last 100 years. The average temperature for 2000 was the warmest on record.

7. Afghanistan - 2001 - Warmest winter on record. Arid Central Asia, which includes Afghanistan, experienced a warming of 0.8-3.6�F (1-2�C) during the 20th century.

8. Tibet - Warmest decade in 1,000 years. Ice core records from the Dasuopu Glacier indicate that the last decade and last 50 years have been the warmest in 1,000 years. Meteorological records for the Tibetan Plateau show that annual temperatures increased 0.4�F (0.16�C) per decade and winter temperatures increased 0.6�F (0.32�C) per decade from 1955 to 1996.

9. Mongolia - Warmest century of the past millennium. A 1,738-year tree-ring record from remote alpine forests in the Tarvagatay Mountains indicates that 20th century temperatures in this region are the warmest of the last millennium. Tree growth during 1980-1999 was the highest of any 20-year period on record, and 8 of the 10 highest growth years occurred since 1950. The 20th century warming has been observed in tree-ring reconstructions of temperature from widespread regions of Eurasia, including sites in the Polar Urals, Yakutia, and the Taymir Peninsula, Russia. The average annual temperature in Mongolia has increased by about 1.3�F (0.7�C) over the past 50 years.

10. Chokoria Sundarbans, Bangladesh - Flooded mangroves. Rising ocean levels have flooded about 18,500 acres (7,500 hectares) of mangrove forest during the past three decades. Global sea-level rise is aggravated by substantial deltaic subsidence in the area with rates as high as 5.5 mm/year.

11. China - Rising waters and temperature. The average rate of sea-level rise was 0.09 +/- 0.04 inches (2.3 +/- 0.9 mm) per year over the last 30 years. Global sea-level rise was aggravated locally by subsidence of up to 2 inches (5 cm) per year for some regions due to earthquakes and groundwater withdrawal. Also, ocean temperatures off the China coast have risen in the last 100 years, especially since the 1960s.

12. Bhutan - Melting glaciers swelling lakes. As Himalayan glaciers melt glacial lakes are swelling and in danger of catastrophic flooding. Average glacial retreat in Bhutan is 100-130 feet (30-40 m) per year. Temperatures in the high Himalayas have risen 1.8�F (1�C) since the mid 1970s.

13. India - Himalayan glaciers retreating. Glaciers in the Himalayas are retreating at an average rate of 50 feet (15 m) per year, consistent with the rapid warming recorded at Himalayan climate stations since the 1970s. Winter stream flow for the Baspa glacier basin has increased 75% since 1966 and local winter temperatures have warmed, suggesting increased glacier melting in winter.

14. Mt. Everest - Retreating glacier.The Khumbu Glacier, popular climbing route to the summit of Mt. Everest, has retreated over 3 miles (5 km) since 1953. The Himalayan region overall has warmed by about 1.8�F (1�C) since the 1970s.

15. Kyrgyzstan - Disappearing glaciers. During 1959-1988, 1,081 glaciers in the Pamir-Altai disappeared. Temperatures in the mountains of Kyrgyztan have increased by 0.9-2.7� F (0.5-1.5�C) since the 1950s.

16. Siberia - Melting permafrost. Large expanses of tundra permafrost are melting. In some regions the rate of thawing of the upper ground is nearly 8 inches (20 cm) per year. Thawing permafrost has already damaged 300 buildings in the cities of Norilsk and Yakutsk. In Yakutsk, the average temperature of the permanently frozen ground has warmed by 2.7 �F (1.5�C) during the past 30 years.

17. Indonesia -- Malaria spreads to high elevations. Malaria was detected for the first time as high as 6,900 feet (2103 m) in the highlands of Irian Jaya in 1997.

18. Philippines -- Coral reef bleaching.

19. Indian Ocean -- Coral reef bleaching (inclues Seychelles; Kenya; Reunion; Mauritius; Somalia; Madagascar; Maldives; Indonesia; Sri Lanka; Gulf of Thailand [Siam]; Andaman Islands; Malaysia; Oman; India; and Cambodia).

20. Persian Gulf -- Coral reef bleaching.

21. Korea -- Heavy rains and flooding. Severe flooding struck during July and August, 1998, with daily rainfall totals exceeding 10 inches (25.4 cm).

22. Indonesia -- Burning rainforest, 1998. Fires burned up to 2 million acres (809,371 hectares) of land, including almost 250,000 acres (101,172 hectares) of primary forest and parts of the already severely reduced habitat of the Kalimantan orangutan.

23. Khabarovsk, Russia -- Wildfires threaten tiger habitat, 1998. Drought and high winds fueled fires that destroyed 3.7 million acres (1,497,337 hectares) of taiga and threatened two important nature reserves that are habitat for the only remaining Amur tigers.

24. Bangladesh - Link between stronger El Ni�o events and cholera prevalence. Researchers found a robust relationship between progressively stronger El Ni�o events and cholera prevalence, spanning a 70-year period from 1893-1940 and 1980-2001. There has been a marked intensification of the El Ni�o/Southern Oscillation phenomenon since the 1980s, which is not fully explained by the known shifts in the Pacific basin temperature regime that began in the mid-1970s. Findings by Rodo et al. are consistent with model projections of El Ni�o intensification under global warming conditions. The authors make a strong case for the climate-health link by providing evidence for biological sensitivity to climate, meteorological evidence of climate change, and evidence of epidemiological change with global warming. The study likely represents the first piece of evidence that warming trends over the last century are affecting human disease.

25. Lake Baikal, Russia - Shorter freezing period. Winter freezing is about 11 days later and spring ice breakup is about 5 days earlier compared to a century ago. Some regions of Siberia have warmed by as much as 2.5�F (1.4�C) in just 25 years.

26. Iran - Desiccated wetlands, 2001 Ninety percent of wetlands have dried up after 2 years of extreme drought. Much of South West Asia has experienced a prolonged three-year drought that is unusual in its magnitude. Out of 102 years of record, 1999, 2000, and 2001 rank as the fifth, third, and seventh driest on record. 1999-2000 was the driest winter on record.

27. Pakistan - Longest drought on record, 1999-2001. The prolonged three-year drought, which covers much of South West Asia, has affected 2.2 million people and 16 million livestock in Pakistan.

28. Tajikistan - Lowest rainfall in 75 years, 2001. 2001 marked the third consecutive year of drought, which has destroyed half the wheat crop.

29. Korea - Worst drought in 100 years of record, 2001. It coincided with an average annual temperature increase in Asia�s temperate region, which includes Korea, by more than 1.8�F (1�C) over the past century. The warming has been most pronounced since 1970.

30. China - Disappearing Lakes, 2001. More than half of the 4,000 lakes in the Qinghai province are disappearing due to drought. The severity of the impact is exacerbated by overpumping of aquifers. Annual average temperature in China has increased during the past century, with pronounced warming since 1980. Most of the warming has been in northern areas, including Qinghai Province, and in the winter.

REPUBLIC ACT No. 8749

This law is also known as the "Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999." This is an act providing for a comprehensive air pollution control policy and for other purposes.

To view the full text of R.A. 8749, visit this website:

http://www.lawphil.net/statutes/repacts/ra1999/ra_8749_1999.html

WHAT IS GLOBAL WARMING?

	What causes global warming?
	Carbon dioxide and other air pollution that is collecting in the atmosphere like a thickening blanket, trapping the sun's heat and causing the planet to warm up. Coal-burning power plants are the largest U.S. source of carbon dioxide pollution -- they produce 2.5 billion tons every year. Automobiles, the second largest source, create nearly 1.5 billion tons of CO2 annually. Here's the good news: technologies exist today to make cars that run cleaner and burn less gas, modernize power plants and generate electricity from nonpolluting sources, and cut our electricity use through energy efficiency. The challenge is to be sure these solutions are put to use.
	Is the earth really getting hotter?
	Yes. Although local temperatures fluctuate naturally, over the past 50 years the average global temperature has increased at the fastest rate in recorded history. And experts think the trend is accelerating: the 10 hottest years on record have all occurred since 1990. Scientists say that unless we curb global warming emissions, average U.S. temperatures could be 3 to 9 degrees higher by the end of the century.
	Are warmer temperatures causing bad things to happen?
	Global warming is already causing damage in many parts of the United States. In 2002, Colorado, Arizona and Oregon endured their worst wildfire seasons ever. The same year, drought created severe dust storms in Montana, Colorado and Kansas, and floods caused hundreds of millions of dollars in damage in Texas, Montana and North Dakota. Since the early 1950s, snow accumulation has declined 60 percent and winter seasons have shortened in some areas of the Cascade Range in Oregon and Washington. Of course, the impacts of global warming are not limited to the United States. In 2003, extreme heat waves caused more than 20,000 deaths in Europe and more than 1,500 deaths in India. And in what scientists regard as an alarming sign of events to come, the area of the Arctic's perennial polar ice cap is declining at the rate of 9 percent per decade.
	Is global warming making hurricanes worse?
	Global warming doesn't create hurricanes, but it does make them stronger and more dangerous. Because the ocean is getting warmer, tropical storms can pick up more energy and become more powerful. So global warming could turn, say, a category 3 storm into a much more dangerous category 4 storm. In fact, scientists have found that the destructive potential of hurricanes has greatly increased along with ocean temperature over the past 35 years.
	Is there really cause for serious concern?
	Yes. Global warming is a complex phenomenon, and its full-scale impacts are hard to predict far in advance. But each year scientists learn more about how global warming is affecting the planet, and many agree that certain consequences are likely to occur if current trends continue. Among these: Melting glaciers, early snowmelt and severe droughts will cause more dramatic water shortages in the American West. Rising sea levels will lead to coastal flooding on the Eastern seaboard, in Florida, and in other areas, such as the Gulf of Mexico. Warmer sea surface temperatures will fuel more intense hurricanes in the southeastern Atlantic and Gulf coasts. Forests, farms and cities will face troublesome new pests and more mosquito-borne diseases. Disruption of habitats such as coral reefs and alpine meadows could drive many plant and animal species to extinction.
	Could global warming trigger a sudden catastrophe?
	Recently, researchers -- and even the U.S. Defense Department -- have investigated the possibility of abrupt climate change, in which gradual global warming triggers a sudden shift in the earth's climate, causing parts of the world to dramatically heat up or cool down in the span of a few years. In February 2004, consultants to the Pentagon released a report laying out the possible impacts of abrupt climate change on national security. In a worst-case scenario, the study concluded, global warming could make large areas of the world uninhabitable and cause massive food and water shortages, sparking widespread migrations and war. While this prospect remains highly speculative, many of global warming's effects are already being observed -- and felt. And the idea that such extreme change is possible underscores the urgent need to start cutting global warming pollution.
	What country is the largest source of global warming pollution?
	The United States. Though Americans make up just 4 percent of the world's population, we produce 25 percent of the carbon dioxide pollution from fossil-fuel burning -- by far the largest share of any country. In fact, the United States emits more carbon dioxide than China, India and Japan, combined. Clearly America ought to take a leadership role in solving the problem. And as the world's top developer of new technologies, we are well positioned to do so -- we already have the know-how.
	How can we cut global warming pollution?
	It's simple: By reducing pollution from vehicles and power plants. Right away, we should put existing technologies for building cleaner cars and more modern electricity generators into widespread use. We can increase our reliance on renewable energy sources such as wind, sun and geothermal. And we can manufacture more efficient appliances and conserve energy.
	Why aren't these technologies more commonplace now?
	Because, while the technologies exist, the corporate and political will to put them into widespread use does not. Many companies in the automobile and energy industries put pressure on the White House and Congress to halt or delay new laws or regulations -- or even to stop enforcing existing rules -- that would drive such changes. From requiring catalytic converters to improving gas mileage, car companies have fought even the smallest measure to protect public health and the environment. If progress is to be made, the American people will have to demand it.
	Do we need new laws requiring industry to cut emissions of global warming pollution?
	Yes. The Bush administration has supported only voluntary reduction programs, but these have failed to stop the growth of emissions. Even leaders of major corporations, including companies such as DuPont, Alcoa and General Electric, agree that it's time for the federal government to create strong laws to cut global warming pollution. Public and political support for solutions has never been stronger. Congress is now considering fresh proposals to cap emissions of carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping pollutants from America's largest sources -- power plants, industrial facilities and transportation fuels. Stricter efficiency requirements for electric appliances will also help reduce pollution. One example is the 30 percent tighter standard now in place for home central air conditioners and heat pumps, a Clinton-era achievement that will prevent the emission of 51 million metric tons of carbon -- the equivalent of taking 34 million cars off the road for one year. The new rule survived a Bush administration effort to weaken it when, in January 2004, a federal court sided with an NRDC-led coalition and reversed the administration's rollback.
	Is it possible to cut power plant pollution and still have enough electricity?
	Yes. First, we must use more efficient appliances and equipment in our homes and offices to reduce our electricity needs. We can also phase out the decades-old, coal-burning power plants that generate most of our electricity and replace them with cleaner plants. And we can increase our use of renewable energy sources such as wind and sun. Some states are moving in this direction: California has required its largest utilities to get 20 percent of their electricity from renewable sources by 2017, and New York has pledged to compel power companies to provide 25 percent of the state's electricity from renewable sources by 2013.
	How can we cut car pollution?
	Cost-effective technologies to reduce global warming pollution from cars and light trucks of all sizes are available now. There is no reason to wait and hope that hydrogen fuel cell vehicles will solve the problem in the future. Hybrid gas-electric engines can cut global warming pollution by one-third or more today; hybrid sedans, SUVs and trucks from several automakers are already on the market. But automakers should be doing a lot more: They've used a legal loophole to make SUVs far less fuel efficient than they could be; the popularity of these vehicles has generated a 20 percent increase in transportation-related carbon dioxide pollution since the early 1990s. Closing this loophole and requiring SUVs, minivans and pick-up trucks to be as efficient as cars would cut 120 million tons of carbon dioxide pollution a year by 2010. If automakers used the technology they have right now to raise fuel economy standards for new cars and light trucks to a combined 40 m.p.g., carbon dioxide pollution would eventually drop by more than 650 million tons per year as these vehicles replaced older models.
	What can I do to help fight global warming?
	There are many simple steps you can take right now to cut global warming pollution. Make conserving energy a part of your daily routine. Each time you choose a compact fluorescent light bulb over an incandescent bulb, for example, you'll lower your energy bill and keep nearly 700 pounds of carbon dioxide out of the air over the bulb's lifetime. By opting for a refrigerator with the Energy Star label -- indicating it uses at least 15 percent less energy than the federal requirement -- over a less energy-efficient model, you can reduce carbon dioxide pollution by nearly a ton in total.

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Philippines: Global warming to cause famine in RP by 2020
Source: Copyright 2008, Manila Times
Date: April 20, 2008
Byline: Rhaydz B. Barcia
Original URL


Scientists warned the Philippines could experience famine by 2020, as the adverse impact of global warming takes its toll on natural resources.

One of those scientists was Lourdes Tibig, climate data chief of the central office of the national weather agency, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (Pag-asa). She and others attended the roundtable discussion of scientists and community development practitioners on disaster and climate risk reduction and climate change adaptation, organized by the Center for Initiatives and Research on Climate Adaptation, of the Albay provincial government.

Tibig said the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) fourth assessment report showed global warming is unequivocal, causing ice caps to melt and sea levels to rise.

“We have pumped enough greenhouse gases into the atmosphere to warm the planet for many decades to come. The earth’s natural system will be affected for decades even if greenhouse gas emissions are reduced now,” she said.

“There are projected increases from 1.1 degrees Celsius to 6.4 degrees Celsius during the 21st century, and for the next two decades, a warming of about 0.2 degrees Celsius per decade is projected, meaning severe drought occurrences and frequent flooding are expected to happen in the Philippines,” Tibig told participants here.

“The impact of climate change on agriculture will be very bad,” she added.

She said the observed mean annual temperature anomalies in the Philippines increased by 0.8904 degrees Celsius from 1951 to 2006. And she added that the increase in minimum temperature is almost three times the increase in maximum temperatures. “When there is an increase of temperature, expect more typhoons, and as the years progressed, typhoons are now crossing in Northern Luzon.”

Tibig predicted that from 2050 and beyond, the agriculture sector will be vulnerable.

“If we do not act immediately, some 1.4 billion global population will adversely suffer from famine. So there is an urgent need to address the climate change phenomenon for us to adapt and mitigate the impact of it,” she said.

Director Shiela Encabo of the National Economic and Development Authority said climate change is causing more severe typhoons, like Reming that pummeled the Bicol region in 2006. That typhoon destroyed at least $90-million worth of agricultural products and infrastructure.

Scientists believe Bicol, on the southern part of Luzon, is the most vulnerable to global warming because of its location.

“There is a need for us to work together,” Encabo said. “Local initiatives across the country should be mobilized to address and adapt mitigation schemes on climate change. To date, only Gov. Joey Salceda of Albay initiated the project on climate change that are not waiting for an international assistance to go through adaptation.”

Jose Ramon “Jiff” Villarin, a Catholic priest and president of Xavier University in Cagayan de Oro City, said climate change should be addressed globally and locally.

“There has to be a concerted [effort] and global action to mitigate and stabilize atmospheric carbon [emissions] by instituting common [action] by differentiated responsibilities. Whatever you’re doing to environment today, you’re doing it to climatic change,” he said.

Two ways of addressing climate change is through reforestation and reducing disaster risk, he said. “We need to act responsibly for sustainability [and this] means leaving something for another day for our children.”

Copyright 2008, Manila Times

Top 10 Things You Can Do to Reduce Global Warming

Burning fossil fuels such as natural gas, coal, oil and gasoline raises the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, and carbon dioxide is a major contributor to the greenhouse effect and global warming.

You can help to reduce the demand for fossil fuels, which in turn reduces global warming, by using energy more wisely. Here are 10 simple actions you can take to help reduce global warming.

1. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle

Do your part to reduce waste by choosing reusable products instead of disposables. Buying products with minimal packaging (including the economy size when that makes sense for you) will help to reduce waste. And whenever you can, recycle paper, plastic, newspaper, glass and aluminum cans. If there isn't a recycling program at your workplace, school, or in your community, ask about starting one. By recycling half of your household waste, you can save 2,400 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.

2. Use Less Heat and Air Conditioning

Adding insulation to your walls and attic, and installing weather stripping or caulking around doors and windows can lower your heating costs more than 25 percent, by reducing the amount of energy you need to heat and cool your home.

Turn down the heat while you’re sleeping at night or away during the day, and keep temperatures moderate at all times. Setting your thermostat just 2 degrees lower in winter and higher in summer could save about 2,000 pounds of carbon dioxide each year.

3. Change a Light Bulb

Wherever practical, replace regular light bulbs with compact fluorescent light (CFL) bulbs. Replacing just one 60-watt incandescent light bulb with a CFL will save you $30 over the life of the bulb. CFLs also last 10 times longer than incandescent bulbs, use two-thirds less energy, and give off 70 percent less heat.

If every U.S. family replaced one regular light bulb with a CFL, it would eliminate 90 billion pounds of greenhouse gases, the same as taking 7.5 million cars off the road.

4. Drive Less and Drive Smart

Less driving means fewer emissions. Besides saving gasoline, walking and biking are great forms of exercise. Explore your community’s mass transit system, and check out options for carpooling to work or school.

When you do drive, make sure your car is running efficiently. For example, keeping your tires properly inflated can improve your gas mileage by more than 3 percent. Every gallon of gas you save not only helps your budget, it also keeps 20 pounds of carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere.

5. Buy Energy-Efficient Products

When it's time to buy a new car, choose one that offers good gas mileage. Home appliances now come in a range of energy-efficient models, and compact florescent bulbs are designed to provide more natural-looking light while using far less energy than standard light bulbs.

Avoid products that come with excess packaging, especially molded plastic and other packaging that can't be recycled. If you reduce your household garbage by 10 percent, you can save 1,200 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.

6. Use Less Hot Water

Set your water heater at 120 degrees to save energy, and wrap it in an insulating blanket if it is more than 5 years old. Buy low-flow showerheads to save hot water and about 350 pounds of carbon dioxide yearly. Wash your clothes in warm or cold water to reduce your use of hot water and the energy required to produce it. That change alone can save at least 500 pounds of carbon dioxide annually in most households. Use the energy-saving settings on your dishwasher and let the dishes air-dry.

7. Use the "Off" Switch

Save electricity and reduce global warming by turning off lights when you leave a room, and using only as much light as you need. And remember to turn off your television, video player, stereo and computer when you're not using them.

It's also a good idea to turn off the water when you're not using it. While brushing your teeth, shampooing the dog or washing your car, turn off the water until you actually need it for rinsing. You'll reduce your water bill and help to conserve a vital resource.

8. Plant a Tree

If you have the means to plant a tree, start digging. During photosynthesis, trees and other plants absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. They are an integral part of the natural atmospheric exchange cycle here on Earth, but there are too few of them to fully counter the increases in carbon dioxide caused by automobile traffic, manufacturing and other human activities. A single tree will absorb approximately one ton of carbon dioxide during its lifetime.

9. Get a Report Card fromYour Utility Company

Many utility companies provide free home energy audits to help consumers identify areas in their homes that may not be energy efficient. In addition, many utility companies offer rebate programs to help pay for the cost of energy-efficient upgrades.

10. Encourage Others to Conserve

Share information about recycling and energy conservation with your friends, neighbors and co-workers, and take opportunities to encourage public officials to establish programs and policies that are good for the environment.

These 10 steps will take you a long way toward reducing your energy use and your monthly budget. And less energy use means less dependence on the fossil fuels that create greenhouse gases and contribute to global warming.