NON RENEWABLE RESOURCES

Natural resource, such as coal, oil, or natural gas, that takes millions of years to form naturally and therefore cannot be replaced once it is consumed; it will eventually be used up. The main energy sources used by humans are non-renewable; renewable resources generate a considerable amount of energy when they are burnt (the process of combustion). Non-renewable resources have a high carbon content because their origin lies in the photosynthetic activity of plants millions of years ago. The fuels release this carbon back into the atmosphere as carbon, such as solar, tidal, wind, and geothermal power, have so far been less exploited. Fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas dioxide. The rate at which such fuels are being burnt is thus resulting in a rise in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, a cause of the greenhouse effect.

In short, these are the things that can run out or can be used up. They usually come from the ground. There are fixed amounts of these resources. They are not living things and they are hard to find. They don't regrow and they are not replaced quickly.

Today, scientists find ways to limit the use of these resources of energy to make them more or less sustainable, lasting not just in the current generation, but also to the next.

What are the non-renewable resources?

a. Wood (Trees) -
Once served as the world's chief fuel. In many developing countries where there are lots of forested area, wood is still the main source of energy. It is also a source of livelihood like furniture making and sculpting (wood carvings). Also, the forests areas needed for farming are being indiscrimately burned using the kainging or slash and burn method.
Although easier said than done, the trend must be towards the creation of sustainable forest:
1. Proper education on the value of forest to discourage slash and burns.
2. Harvesting only what is needed.
3. Planting to replace those harvested.
4. Zero-waste management on wood being harvested. Wood chips and grains can be harnessed as biomass energy.

Kaingin or slash and burn method

b. Coal

This is a result of a half a million to even several million years of compression and heat applied to decaying plants growing in bogs or swampy areas. Because of this length of time for nature to form coal, it is considered a non renewable source of energy.

Coal

About 26% of the world's energy still uses coal as their fuel source, whether for producing heat or electrical.
The Philippines has an abundance of coal, especially in Regions II (Cagayan Valley), VI (Panay, Negros Oriental), and XIII or CARAGA (Agusan and Surigao provinces).

The most notable coald-based power plants are Pagbilao 1 and 2 in Quezon province and ACMDC Coal Plant in Cebu.

Problems using Coal
a) accidents in coal mines
b) diseases that result from breathing coal dust
c) strip mining causes erosion of mining sites
d) when burned, coal releases nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide and other impurities that pollute the air, leading to the formation of acid rain.

The main pollutant that cause acid rain, industries eject sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the atmosphere which becomes part of the clouds and form acid rainSee how the trees become leafless and dead because of their being exposed to acid rain

c. Petroleum
One of the world's most important resources. Its by products are essential in cooking and heating, powering vehicles and airplanes, and even electricity generation.
Most petroleum is removed from deep within the earth as a liquid called crude oil. Workers pump crude oil out of the earth through wells drilled into oil-bearing formation called reservoirs. Because it is liquid, crude oil can be economically transported long distances by pipelines to refineries. Refineries process it into gasoline and other petroleum products.

Greatest Oil Reserves by Country, 2006

Country	Proved reserves (billion barrels)
1.	Saudi Arabia	264.3
2.	Canada	178.8
3.	Iran	132.5
4.	Iraq	115.0
5.	Kuwait	101.5
6.	United Arab Emirates	97.8
7.	Venezuela	79.7
8.	Russia	60.0
9.	Libya	39.1
10.	Nigeria	35.9
11.	United States	21.4
12.	China	18.3
13.	Qatar	15.2
14.	Mexico	12.9
15.	Algeria	11.4
16.	Brazil	11.2
17.	Kazakhstan	9.0
18.	Norway	7.7
19.	Azerbaijan	7.0
20.	India	5.8
Top 20 countries		1224.5 (95%)
Rest of world		68.1 (5%)
World total		1,292.6

NOTES: Proved reserves are estimated with reasonable certainty to be recoverable with present technology and prices.

Source: Oil & Gas Journal, Vol. 103, No. 47 (Dec. 19, 2005). From: U.S. Energy Information Administration.

• Many parts of the country have shown good indications of the presence of petroleum. The Cagayan Valley, Central Plain of Luzon, Bondoc Peninsula in Quezon, Cebu, Leyte, Cotabato, Palawan, and Sulu Sea, are promising petroleum-bearing areas now. Commercial petroleum deposits have been discovered in the western coast of Palawan.
• Top Philippine sites with oil potential includes West Linapacan A/B in Palawan, Carnag-Malampaya in Palawan, Galoc also in Palawan, Maniguin in Mindoro-Cuyo and Matinloc in Palawan.
• Problems using petroleum

a. it takes a lot to form.
b. effective environmental management
i. forest ecosystem must be preserved when creating oil pipes.
ii. leak detectors must be present on oil and pipelines to
detect even a minute spill, thus avoiding a bigger one.
c. burning fuels and power plants contribute to the "greenhouse effect"
d. proper maintenance of vehicles and power plants would ensure
proper burning of these fossil fuels.

D. Natural Gas

• natural gas comes from deposits in the earth
• it is a clean source of energy because it is refined naturally during its formation within the earth and does not require further refining.
• natural gas can be compressed into liquid and transported long distances through pipes.
• September 27, 2001 marked the entry of the Philippines as a producer of commercial grade natural gas with its discovery at the Malampaya well, off the wester coast of Palawan. It was inaugurated last October 16, 2001 at Malampaya - on shore gas plant in Tabangao, Batangas.
• It is a 4.5 billion-dollar project of Shell Philippines Exploration, BV Texaco Philippines, and the Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC-EC)
• Potential supply of 8,000 barrels per day and expected income from 8-10 billion dollar.
• Top sites with natural gas potential includes Carnaga-Malampaya, San Martin in Palawan, San Antonio in Cagayan and Octon in Palawan.

RENEWABLE RESOURCES

A natural resource qualifies as a renewable resource if it is replenished by natural resources at a rate comparable or faster than its rate of consumption by humans or other users.Solar radiation, tides, winds, nuclear reactors, geothermal and hydroelectricity are perpetual resources that are in no danger of being used in excess of their long-term availability. The term alas has the connotation of sustainability of the handlings of waste products by the natural environment.Nuclear energy is energy in the nucleus (core) of an atom. Atoms are tiny particles that make up every object in the universe. There is enormous energy in the bonds that hold atoms together.

Nuclear energy can be used to make electricity. But first the energy must be released. It can be released from atoms in two ways: nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fusion, energy is released when atoms are combined or fused together to form a larger atom. This is how the sun produces energy. In nuclear fission, atoms are split apart to form smaller atoms, releasing energy. Nuclear power plants use nuclear fission to produce electricity.

The fuel most widely used by nuclear plants for nuclear fission is uranium. Uranium is nonrenewable, though it is a common metal found in rocks all over the world. Nuclear plants use a certain kind of uranium, U-235, as fuel because its atoms are easily split apart. Though uranium is quite common, about 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is relatively rare. Most U.S. uranium is mined, in the Western United States. Once uranium is mined the U-235 must be extracted and processed before it can be used as a fuel.

During nuclear fission, a small particle called a neutron hits the uranium atom and splits it, releasing a great amount of energy as heat and radiation. More neutrons are also released. These neutrons go on to bombard other uranium atoms, and the process repeats itself over and over again. This is called a chain reaction.

Nuclear reactors are basically machines that contain and control chain reactions, while releasing heat at a controlled rate. In electric power plants, the reactors supply the heat to turn water into steam, which drives the turbine-generators. The electricity travels through high voltage transmission lines and low voltage distribution lines to homes, schools, hospitals, factories, office buildings, rail systems and other users.

Compared to electricity generated by burning fossil fuels, nuclear energy is clean. Nuclear power plants produce no air pollution or carbon dioxide but a small amount of emissions result from processing the uranium that is used in nuclear reactors.

Like all industrial processes, nuclear power generation has by-product wastes: spent (used) fuels, other radioactive waste, and heat. Spent fuels and other radioactive wastes are the principal environmental concern for nuclear power. Most nuclear waste is low-level radioactive waste. It consists of ordinary tools, protective clothing, wiping cloths and disposable items that have been contaminated with small amounts of radioactive dust or particles. These materials are subject to special regulation that govern their disposal so they will not come in contact with the outside environment.

Solar power is the energy derived directly from the Sun. It is the most abundant source of energy on Earth. The fastest growing type of alternative energy, increasing at 50 percent a year, is the photovoltaic cell, which converts sunlight directly into energy. The Sun yearly delivers more than 10,000 times the energy that humans currently use.

Solar dishes

Wind power is derived from uneven heating of the Earth's surface from the Sun and the warm core. Most modern wind power is generated in the form of electricity by converting the rotation of turbine blades into electrical current by means of an electrical generator. In windmills (a much older technology) wind energy is used to turn mechanical machinery to do physical work, like crushing grain or pumping water.

Windmills in Burgos, Ilocos Norte

Hydropower energy derived from the movement of water in rivers and oceans (or other energy differentials), can likewise be used to generate electricity using turbines, or can be used mechanically to do useful work. It is a very common resource.

Maria Cristina Falls in Iligan City

Geothermal power directly harnesses the natural flow of heat from the ground. The available energy from natural decay of radioactive elements in the earth's crust and mantle is approximately equal to that of incoming solar energy.

The natural heat within the earth is the motor of the "geothermal energy". In fact, the earth serves as a hot water-boiler. The heat of the earth warms up water (fluids) which is trapped in rock formations thousands of feet (3,000 meter) beneath the earth's surface.

Worldwide, the Philippines rank second to the United States in producing geothermic energy. Leyte is of the island in the Philippines where geothermic power plants were developed. The developments here started in 1977 by the company Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC). Many of the geothermic natural resources are still waiting to be "harnessed for steam."

Leyte is one of the Philippine islands where geothermal energy is produced.

In the Philippines geothermal energy already provides 27% of the country's total electricity production generated in power plants. Geothermal power plants are on the islands Luzon, Negros, Mindanao and Leyte.

Geothermal Plant in Tongonan, Leyte

The production of the electricity by geothermal plants is cheaper than the electricity produced in plants by using natural gas and coal. It is even cheaper than electricity produced by hydro power stations.

Biomass Energy or Bioconversion

It is just composed of organic materials, most of which are waste. Sources include composting materials, wood, municipal and city wastes, bagasse, coconut waste and animal waste

From biomass, one can get the following:

• ethanol (fermenting high carbohydrate biomass sources)
  
• biodiesel/biofuel (from Jethropa sp.)
• fuel oil
  

Alcohol derived from corn, sugar cane, etc. is also a renewable source of energy. Similarly, oils from plants and seeds can be used as a substitute for non-renewable diesel. Methane is also considered as a renewable source of energy.

MONTREAL PROTOCOL and LEGISLATION about OZONE DEPLETION

In 1985 the Vienna Convention established mechanisms for international co-operation in research into the ozone layer and the effects of ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs). 1985 also marked the first discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole. On the basis of the Vienna Convention, the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer was negotiated and signed by 24 countries and by the European Economic Community in September 1987. The Protocol called for the Parties to phase down the use of CFCs, halons and other man-made ODCs.

The Montreal Protocol represented a landmark in the international environmentalist movement. For the first time whole countries were legally bound to reducing and eventually phasing out altogether the use of CFCs and other ODCs. Failure to comply was accompanied by stiff penalties. The original Protocol aimed to decrease the use of chemical compounds destructive to ozone in the stratosphere by 50% by the year 1999. The Protocol was supplemented by agreements made in London in 1990 and in Copenhagen in 1992, where the same countries promised to stop using CFCs and most of the other chemical compounds destructive to ozone by the end of 1995. Fortunately, it has been fairly easy to develop and introduce compounds and methods to replace CFC compounds.

In order to deal with the special difficulties experienced by developing countries it was agreed that they would be given an extended period of grace, so long as their use of CFCs did not grow significantly. China and India, for example, are strongly increasing the use of air conditioning and cooling devices. Using CFC compounds in these devices would be cheaper than using replacement compounds harmless to ozone. An international fund was therefore established to help these countries introduce new and more environmentally friendly technologies and chemicals. The depletion of the ozone layer is a worldwide problem which does not respect the frontiers between different countries. It can only be affected through determined international co-operation.

The Timetable

Montreal Protocol (1987)
CFCs (11, 12, 113, 114, 115): Phase down 1986 levels by 20% by 1994; 50% by 1999.

London Amendment (1990)
CFCs 13, 111, 112, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217: Phase down 1989 levels 20% by 1993; 85% by 1997; 100% by 2000.
Halons (1211, 1301, 2402): Phase down 1986 levels 50% by 1995; 100% by 2000.
Carbon Tetrachloride: Phase down 1989 levels 85% by 1995; 100% by 2000.

Copenhagen Amendment (1992)
CFCs: phase out by 1995
Halons: phase out by 1993
Carbon Tetrachloride: phase out by 1995
HCFCs: phase down 1989 levels 35% by 2004; 90% by 2019; 100% by 2029.

The Montreal Protocol has been further adjusted in Vienna (1995), Montreal (1997) and most recently in Beijing (1999). The Beijing Amendment (1999) has introduced a freezing of HCFC production by 2003.

LEGISLATION

Under the terms of the Montreal Protocol developed nations have ceased production of new CFCs, halons and other ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs) to protect the ozone layer. Trade controls on the supply of these substances have been put in place to ensure compliance with the Protocol. Existing CFCs are re-used and recycled where possible. Nevertheless, the increasing price of CFCs as a result of the ban on new production has led to a wave of international smuggling.

Usually, when ozone-depleting substances are discarded or removed from equipment during the course of maintenance they become controlled waste. In Britain, the 1990 Environmental Protection Act ensured that waste chemicals which may contribute to stratospheric ozone depletion are disposed of as carefully as possibly to avoid any release to the atmosphere.

The production and consumption of new halons (ODCs containing bromine) has already ceased under the terms of the Montreal Protocol. However, whilst replacements have been developed these cannot be used in existing systems, which can only be maintained with recycled halons using surplus material from redundant installations. In the UK the Halon Users’ National Consortium (HUNC) is managing the installed banks of halons, acting as a clearing house putting those who need to continue to use halons in contact with those who do not.

The Montreal Protocol and subsequent London and Copenhagen Amendments have demanded that existing CFCs should be recovered, recycled and re-used where possible. In the UK commercial users of refrigeration and air conditioning appliances can contact the Refrigeration Industry Board to ensure that best industrial practice is maintained during the disposal or re-use of CFCs. Domestic users of old refrigerators can contact their local authority to find out if it operates a CFC recovery and recycling scheme.

The Montreal Protocol works through a system of trade barriers controlling supply to the market of ozone depleting chemicals. Imports of newly produced CFCs and halons by developed countries have already been banned, as have imports and exports in the ODCs carbon tetrachloride and 1,1,1 trichloroethane. Developing countries have been granted a period of grace to comply with the Montreal Protocol, to avoid undue stresses on their growing economies.

As a result of the decline in the production and use of CFCs, and the continuation of CFC production in developing countries (allowed under the provisions of the Montreal Protocol until 2010), the lure of illegal trade in CFCs is obvious. Significant volumes of illegal imports of CFCs into Western Europe have been reported, even though production in Western Europe ceased at the end of 1994. Unfortunately, the Montreal Protocol currently does not require Parties (countries) to implement controls against illegal trade, although they have been urged to install verification programs to reduce illegal trade in ODCs.

MONITORING OZONE DEPLETION

Monitoring of the ozone layer has increased significantly since the 1980s when the Antarctic ozone hole was first discovered by the British Antarctic Survey. The ozone layer is monitored both by satellites and ground-based resources that are dedicated to observing the destruction of stratospheric ozone.

The main satellite that monitors the ozone layer is the TOMS (Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer) satellite. The TOMS satellite measures the ozone levels from the back-scattered sunlight in the ultraviolet (UV) range. Another satellite is NASA's UARS (Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite) which was launched in September 1991. This satellite is unique because it was configured to not only measure ozone levels, but also levels of ozone-depleting chemicals. GOME, launched in April 1995 on the ERS-2 satellite, marked the beginning of a long-term European ozone monitoring effort. Scientists receive high quality data on the global distribution of ozone and several other climate-influencing trace gases in the Earth's atmosphere.

In 1987, Canada became the first country in the world to focus on the Arctic ozone layer, following the discovery of the ozone hole over the Antarctic. A cross-country network of monitoring stations has kept continuous watch on Canada’s ozone layer for more than three decades. The existence of these early records, before any major human influence on the upper atmosphere, is vital to understanding the changes that have occurred in the ozone layer.

In the UK, stratospheric ozone levels are monitored every winter and spring at Cambourne in Cornwall and Lerwick in the Shetland Isles.

MEASURING OZONE DEPLETION

The most common stratospheric ozone measurement unit is the Dobson Unit (DU). The Dobson Unit is named after the atmospheric ozone pioneer G.M.B. Dobson who carried out the earliest studies on ozone in the atmosphere from the 1920s to the 1970s. A Dobson Unit measures the total amount of ozone in an overhead column of the atmosphere. Dobson Units are measured by how thick the layer of ozone would be if it were compressed into one layer at 0 degrees Celsius and with a pressure of one atmosphere above it. Every 0.01 millimetre thickness of the layer is equal to one Dobson Unit.

The average amount of ozone in the stratosphere across the globe is about 300 DU (or a thickness of only 3mm at 0°C and 1 atmospheric pressure!). Highest levels of ozone are usually found in the mid to high latitudes, in Canada and Siberia (360DU). When stratospheric ozone falls below 200 DU this is considered low enough to represent the beginnings of an ozone hole. Ozone holes of course commonly form during springtime above Antarctica, and to a lesser extent the Arctic.

OZONE AND THE SEA LIFE

Plankton form the foundation of aquatic food webs. Plankton are generally found in the upper layer of the oceans in which there is sufficient sunlight to support the photosynthesis of food. Since UV radiation has the ability to penetrate up to 20 metres down in clear water, plankton and other light dependent organisms often experience cell damage, much as human DNA can be damaged by the strong solar radiation. Both plant (phytoplankton) and animal (zooplankton) species are damaged by UV radiation even at current levels. Since UV radiation is absorbed by only a few layers of cells, large organisms are more protected, whilst smaller ones, such as plankton are among the most severely affected by UV radiation. As plankton make up the base of the marine food chain, changes in their number and species composition will influence fish and shellfish production worldwide. These kinds of losses will have a direct impact on the food supply.

UV radiation has also been found to cause damage to the early developmental stages of fish, shrimp, crab, amphibians and other animals. The most severe effects are decreased reproductive capacity and impaired larval development. Even at current levels, UV radiation is a limiting factor, and small increases in UV exposure could result in a significant reduction in the size of the population of animals that eat these smaller creatures.

Research indicates that many plankton species already seem to be at or near their maximum tolerance of UV radiation. Thus, even small increases in UV levels as a result of ozone depletion may have a dramatic impact on plankton life and on entire marine ecosystems. If ozone layer depletion reached 15% over temperate waters in the mid-latitudes, it would take fewer than five days in summer for half the zooplankton in the top metre of these waters to die from the increased radiation. Additionally, large amounts of young fish, shrimp and crabs would die before reaching their reproductive age. Less food would be available for adult fish and other higher forms of marine life, and therefore for human consumption. This is of particular relevance, as more than 30% of the world's animal protein for human consumption comes from the sea.

Effects of the ozone hole in Antarctica have already been seen in some of the organisms. Most of the Antarctic organisms have a low tolerance for UV radiation since for much of the year, hardly any direct sunlight reaches the continent. With the reduced ozone in springtime, UV radiation has been able to penetrate the atmosphere with a higher intensity. Already at the base of the Antarctica food chain an impact has been felt. Increased UV radiation has already reduced the plankton populations by between 6% and 12%. Consequently, species higher up have felt the impact.

OZONE AND THE LAND PLANTS

Excessive UV radiation inhibits the growth processes of almost all green plants. There is concern that ozone depletion may lead to a loss of plant species and reduce global food supply. Plants form the basis of the terrestrial food web, prevent soil erosion and water loss, and are the primary producers of oxygen and a primary removal sink for carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas.

Exposure to UV radiation may have a dramatic effect on terrestrial plant life, although the impacts are at present poorly understood. Absorption of UV radiation varies widely from one organism to the next. In general UV radiation affects plant growth by reducing leaf size and limiting the area available for energy capture during photosynthesis. Plant stunting and a reduction in total dry weight are also typically seen in UV-irradiated plants, with a reduction in the nutrient content and the growth of the plants, especially in the pea and cabbage families. A reduction in quality of certain types of tomato, potato, sugar beet and soya bean has also been observed. Forests also appear to be vulnerable. About half of the species of conifer seedlings so far studied have been adversely affected by UV radiation. Although old needles are able to protect themselves by strengthening their outer wax coating and by increasing the amount of protective pigment, young growing pine needles in contrast, suffer easily. Indirect changes caused by UV radiation, such as flowering and germination rates, changes in plant form and how nutrients are distributed within the plant, may be more important than the damaging effects of the radiation itself.

Reliable scientific information on the effects of UV radiation on plants however, is limited. Only 4 out of 10 terrestrial plant ecosystems (temperate forest, agriculture, temperate grassland, and tundra/alpine ecosystems) have been studied. In addition, much of the existing information comes from greenhouses where plants are more sensitive to UV radiation than those grown outdoors. There are indications that some weeds are more UV-resistant than crops. Many organisms have developed mechanisms for protecting themselves against over-exposure to UV radiation, for example by shielding themselves with pigment and repairing damaged DNA or plant tissue. However, for many organisms these mechanisms may not be sufficient to protect against increased levels of UV radiation as a result of ozone depletion.

Exposure tests made in USA and Australia have showed that over one hundred species of land plant could be sensitive to increases in UV radiation as a result of stratospheric ozone depletion. Some research has suggested that a 25% ozone depletion could result in a comparable reduction in total soya bean crop yield. International research has revealed that some species of rice suffer from even minor increases in UV radiation. Research into the efficient breeding and cultivation of strong species may help to offset some of the damaging effects of stratospheric ozone loss.

OZONE AND THE HUMAN HEALTH

Ozone's unique physical properties allow the ozone layer to act as our planet's sunscreen, providing an invisible filter to help protect all life forms from the Sun's damaging ultraviolet (UV) rays. Most incoming UV radiation is absorbed by ozone and prevented from reaching the Earth's surface. Without the protective effect of ozone, life on Earth would not have evolved the way it has.

The ozone layer protects us from the harmful effects of certain wavelengths of ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the Sun. The danger to humans from UV radiation comes mainly from the UV-B range of the spectrum, although UV-A poses some risk if exposure is long enough. UV radiation is harmful to the eyes, can damage the immune system and over time can lead to the development of skin cancers. If ozone in the stratosphere is destroyed, more UV radiation will reach the Earth's surface, and incidences of these health effects will increase.

OZONE AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

UV radiation from the Sun can benefit health, generating vitamin D production in the skin. The required amount of radiation is, however, quite small. In summer, an exposure of 15 minutes to the hands and face is adequate. Vitamin D is also found in food. A normal diet will provide enough vitamin D for people even in winter. In the treatment of some skin diseases such as psoriasis, UV radiation is being effectively exploited. Under a doctor's control, the benefit from the treatment is much greater than any consequential increase in skin cancer risk.

However, over exposure to UV radiation can impair the body's ability to fight off disease, in addition to causing cancer and a range of eye disorders. UV suppresses the immune system, irrespective of skin colour, making it easier for tumours to take hold and spread.

UV radiation suppresses allergic reactions of the skin and affects the immune system. When skin has been over-exposed to UV radiation, the activity of antibody-producing white blood cells is suppressed. These effects are not restricted to the part of skin actually subject to exposure, but may also occur on shielded parts of skin and throughout the whole immune system. As a result, the body fails to produce the antigens required for defence against a variety of diseases. This could have serious consequences, including a much-diminished effectiveness of vaccinations.

At the present time, the significance of a weakening of the immune system caused by UV radiation is not properly understood. The weakening can possibly act to promote the development of skin cancers and worsen infectious diseases stemming from bacteria, viruses and tropical parasites. It may also activate viruses already present on the skin, such as herpes, and lead to an increase in diseases like measles, malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy and fungal infections, all of which have a stage involving the skin. People carrying the herpes virus should protect their faces against strong sunlight.

Scientific research suggests that sunburn can alter the distribution and function of disease-fighting white blood cells in humans for up to 24 hours after exposure to the Sun. In addition, repeated exposure to UV radiation may cause more long-lasting damage to the body's immune system. Whilst little research has been conducted on the effects of decreasing stratospheric ozone on human immunity, it is likely that continued destruction of the ozone layer will lead to further health complications, in addition to skin cancers and eye disorders, as a result of the suppression of our ability to fight off disease.